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Wild species are susceptible to several typical domestic animal pathogens, and the increasingly close contact between these groups is a predictive factor for disease exposure. Some viruses are important and old-known, and others are emerging or reemerging for domestic carnivorans and have been identified as threats to the conservation of wild mammals. The purpose of the study was to investigate the occurrence of bocaparvoviruses (BoVs, Parvoviridae family, Parvovirinae subfamily, Bocaparvovirus genus), parvoviruses (Parvoviridae family, Parvovirinae subfamily, Protoparvovirus genus, Protoparvovirus carnivoran1), hepadnaviruses (Hepadnaviridae family), coronaviruses (Coronaviridae family, Orthocoronavirinae subfamily), paramyxoviruses (Paramyxoviridae family) and canine distemper virus (Orthoparamyxovirinae subfamily, Morbillivirus genus, Morbillivirus canis), poxviruses (Poxviridae family), feline herpesvirus (Orthoherpesviridae family, Alphaherpesvirinae subfamily, Varicellovirus genus, Varicellovirus felidalpha1), feline calicivirus (Caliciviridae family, Vesivirus genus, FCV), feline immunodeficiency virus (Retroviridae family, Orthoretrovirinae subfamily, Lentivirus genus, FIV), feline leukemia virus (Retroviridae family, Orthoretrovirinae subfamily, Gammaretrovirus genus, FeLV), and gammaherpesviruses (Orthoherpesviridae family, Gammaherpesvirinae subfamily) in wild carnivorans. A total of 30 biological samples from the families Canidae, Felidae, Mephitidae, Mustelidae, and Procyonidae were evaluated. All animals were victims of vehicular collisions in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. Canine parvovirus (CPV-2) DNA was detected in the spleen of a bush dog (Speothos venaticus), a jaguarundi (Puma yagouaroundi), and a jaguar (Panthera onca), FeLV proviral DNA was found in the spleen of an ocelot (Leopardus pardalis); while CDV RNA was detected in the liver of a jaguarundi. Phylogenetic analysis carried out with the partial sequence of the CPV-2 VP2 gene and the U3 (LTR) gag region of FeLV showed 100% identity with strains obtained from domestic dogs and cats, respectively. The approximation between wild and domestic animals favors the transmission of pathogens, especially between phylogenetically close species, such as members of the Canidae and Felidae families. Identification of the DNA and RNA of potentially fatal viruses such as CPV-2, FeLV, and CDV in four wilds endangered to extinction and understudied species contributes to our understanding of the pathogens circulating in this free-ranging and vulnerable population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Circoviruses are a group of small circular, single-stranded DNA viruses that belong to the family Circoviridae. They are known to infect a wide variety of animals. Rhizomys sinensis is a species of rodent that is the reservoir of many zoonotic pathogens. Our previous study identified many sequencing reads mapped to the genome of viruses in Circoviridae in R. sinensis. However, little is known about the circulation and genetic characterization of circoviruses in R. sinensis. This study identified three different circoviruses in samples from 195 R. sinensis. First, the bamboo rat circovirus is widely prevalent in R. sinensis in Guangdong Province, and all strains could be divided into three clades based on nucleotide substitutions at specific sites. Second, and more important, porcine circovirus 2 (PCV2) was isolated for the first time from R. sinensis, which expanded the host range of PCV2 and indicated extra procedures would be required to protect livestock from this virus. Finally, a novel circovirus phylogenetically close to the dromedary stool-associated circular ssDNA virus was detected in 86 (44.1%) samples, which may represent a new circovirus species. These results not only expand our understanding of the circovirus diversity in rodents, particularly in R. sinensis, but also underscore the importance of continued surveillance of viruses in wildlife populations, particularly in rodents, to prevent and control the spread of zoonotic pathogens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The Kachia Grazing Reserve (KGR) is located in Kaduna state in north‐western Nigeria and consists of 6 contiguous blocks housing 744 defined households (HH), all engaged in livestock keeping. It is considered as a homogenous epidemiological unit and a defined study area. In 2012, all cattle and sheep of 40 selected HH were sampled to determine sero‐prevalence of antibodies to foot‐and‐mouth disease virus (FMDV) and of FMDV. The overall sero‐prevalence of antibodies to the non‐structural 3ABC protein (NSP‐3ABC ELISA) was 28.9% (380/1,315) (30.6% cattle; 16.3% sheep), and in 4.5% (62/1,380) (5% cattle; 0.6% sheep) of the examined sera FMD viral RNA could be detected by real‐time RT‐PCR (rRT‐PCR). Additionally, in 2012 and 2014 serum, epithelium and probang samples were collected from cattle in reported FMD outbreaks and the causative FMDVs were molecularly characterized. Approximately half (28/59) of the outbreak sera reacted positive in NSP‐3ABC ELISA, and 88% (52/59) of the outbreak sera contained detectable viral RNA. Overall, antibodies against five FMDV serotypes (O, A, SAT1, SAT2 and SAT3) were detected by solid phase competitive ELISA with combinations of two or more serotypes being common. Of the 21 FMDVs that could be isolated 19 were sequenced and 18 were confirmed as SAT2 (lineage VII) while one was characterized as serotype O (EA‐3 topotype). Phylogenetic analysis revealed a close relationship between Nigerian FMDV strains and strains in this region and even with strains in North‐Africa. Our findings indicate that FMD constitutes an endemic health problem to cattle rearing in the agro‐pastoralist community in the KGR and that the KGR is not a closed epidemiological unit. Insight into the local FMDV epidemiology and in the circulating FMDV serotypes/strains is of support to the relevant authorities in Nigeria when considering the need for an FMD control policy to improve animal production in grazing reserves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Competitive‐ELISA (c‐ELISA) is the most widely used serological test for the detection of Bluetongue virus (BTV) viral protein 7 (VP7) antibodies (Ab). However, these BTV c‐ELISAs cannot to distinguish between IgG and IgM. IgM Ab are generated shortly after the primary immune response against an infectious agent, indicating a recent infection or exposure to antigens, such as after vaccination. Because the BTV genome or anti‐VP7 Ab can be detected in ruminant blood months after infection, BTV diagnostic tools cannot discriminate between recent and old infections. In this study, we evaluated an IgM‐capture ELISA prototype to detect ruminant anti‐BTV VP7 IgM on 1,650 serum samples from cattle, sheep, or goats. Animals were BTV‐naive, infected, or/and vaccinated with BTV‐1, ‐2, ‐4, ‐8, ‐9, ‐16, or ‐27, and we also included 30 sera from cattle infected with the Epizootic haemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) serotype 6. Results demonstrated that this ELISA kit is specific and can detect the presence of IgM with satisfactory diagnostic specificity and sensitivity from 1 to 5 weeks after BTV infection in domestic ruminants (for goats and cattle; for sheep, at least up to 24 days). The peak of anti‐VP7 IgM was reached when the level of infectious viruses and BTV RNA in blood were the highest. The possibility of detecting BTV‐RNA in IgM‐positive sera allows the amplification and sequencing of the partial RNA segment 2 (encoding the serotype specific to VP2) to determine the causative BTV serotype/strain. Therefore, BTV IgM ELISA can detect the introduction of BTV (or EHDV) in an area with BTV‐seropositive domestic animals regardless of their serological BTV status. This approach may also be of particular interest for retrospective epidemiological studies on frozen serum samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Differential diagnosis of diseases that share common clinical signs typically requires the performance of multiple independent diagnostic tests to confirm diagnosis. Diagnostic tests that can detect and discriminate between multiple differential pathogens in a single reaction may expedite, reduce costs, and streamline the diagnostic testing workflow. Livestock haemorrhagic diseases like classical swine fever (CSF), African swine fever (ASF), and vesicular diseases, such as foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD), vesicular stomatitis (VS), and swine vesicular disease (SVD) can have an enormous impact on the livestock industry and economy of countries that were previously free of the diseases. Thus, rapid diagnosis of these diseases is critical for disease control. Here, we describe the development and initial laboratory validation of a novel fully automated user‐developed assay for simultaneous detection and differentiation of multiple viruses of veterinary importance in a single reaction with minimal user‐intervention. The user only performs sample loading, placement of consumables and reagents, selection and initiation of assay while all other processes (i.e., nucleic acid extraction, multiplex RT‐PCR, reverse dot blot detection and result reporting) are performed fully automated. The current assay has a turn‐around time of approximately 6 hr and can simultaneously process up to 24 samples. The automated assay accurately and specifically detected 37 laboratory amplified strains of the five target viruses, including all seven serotypes of FMD virus, three genotypes of CSF virus, and two serotypes of VS virus. The assay also detected targeted viruses in a variety of clinical samples collected from infected animals, such as oral fluid, oral swab, nasal swab, whole blood, serum, as well as tonsil, spleen, kidney, and ileum. No cross‐reactivity was observed with 15 nontarget viruses that affect livestock and samples from clinically healthy animals. To our knowledge, this is the first fully automated and integrated assay for simultaneous detection of multiple high consequence veterinary pathogens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The implementation of biosecurity measures in the animal health and production context is quite broad and aims at limiting the risk of introduction and spread of diseases. Veterinarians play a major role in biosecurity as key informants on the subject for cattle holders, key players in terms of disease prevention/control and eradication programs, as well as key risk factor in terms of disease dissemination. Many biosecurity studies have highlighted professional visitors such as veterinary practitioners as representing a high‐risk factor in terms of disease introduction in animal facilities but, to date, very few studies have focused on the implementation level of biosecurity measures by veterinarians. An online survey was implemented in three European countries (Belgium, France and Spain) to assess the behaviour of rural veterinarians towards biosecurity, as well as their implementation level of the biosecurity measures. A descriptive analysis of data and a scoring system were applied to assess the implementation level of measures. The influence of different factors on the implementation level of biosecurity measures was investigated through a negative binomial regression model. The study identified different strengths, weaknesses, possible constraints and solutions in terms of veterinary perspectives. Veterinarians are considered as key informants by the farmers and could therefore play a more active role in terms of guidance and improvement of biosecurity at farm level. Based on the survey outcomes, two factors seemed to influence significantly the implementation level of measures: the country where he/she practices and the veterinarian's perception level of biosecurity. The biosecurity stages with the lowest application level, therefore representing the biggest threats, were bio‐exclusion (increasing the risk of disease introduction) and biocontainment (increasing the risk of inter‐herd transmission). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The ruminant pestiviral species BVDV‐1, BVDV‐2 and BDV, along with the putative species HoBi‐like, may cause substantial economic losses in cattle, sheep and goats. Brazil's large size, variable biomes and wide range of ruminant animal production within different geographic regions suggest that the presence and prevalence of ruminant pestivirus may differ by regions within Brazil. This study investigated the genetic diversity of ruminant pestiviruses and determined the frequency of active infections within two states of the Northeast Region of Brazil, Maranhão and Rio Grande do Norte. Serum samples from 16,621 cattle and 2,672 small ruminants from 569 different herds residing in this region were tested by RT‐PCR followed by DNA sequencing. Seventeen positive cattle were detected (0.1%) from fifteen different herds (2.64%). All isolates were classified as HoBi‐like pestiviruses based on phylogenetic analysis. All small ruminant samples tested negative. The findings presented herein suggest that the Northeast Region of Brazil has a uniquely high prevalence of HoBi‐like viruses. The increasing reports of HoBi‐like viruses detected in cattle in the field suggest that natural infection with these viruses may be more widespread than previously thought. The identification of HoBi‐like viruses as the most prevalent type of ruminant pestivirus circulating in the Northeast Region of Brazil indicates the need for both continued monitoring and determination of the extent of economic losses associated with HoBi‐like virus infections. In addition, it must be taken into account in the choice of diagnostic tests and in vaccine formulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) infection in cattle can result in growth retardation, reduced milk production, reproductive disorders and death. Persistently infected animals are the primary source of infection. In Hokkaido, Japan, all cattle entering shared pastures in summer are vaccinated before movement for disease control. Additionally, these cattle may be tested for BVDV and culled if positive. However, the effectiveness of this control strategy aiming to reduce the number of BVDV‐infected animals has not been assessed. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of various test‐and‐cull and/or vaccination strategies on BVDV control in dairy farms in two districts of Hokkaido, Nemuro and Hiyama. A stochastic model was developed to compare the different control strategies over a 10‐year period. The model was individual‐based and simulated disease dynamics both within and between herds. Parameters included in the model were obtained from the literature, the Hokkaido government and the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Nine different scenarios were compared as follows: no control, test‐and‐cull strategies based on antigen testing of either calves or only cattle entering common pastures, vaccination of all adult cattle or only cattle entering shared pastures and combinations thereof. The results indicate that current strategies for BVDV control in Hokkaido slightly reduced the number of BVDV‐infected animals; however, alternative strategies such as testing all calves and culling any positives or vaccinating all susceptible adult animals dramatically reduced those. To our knowledge, this is the first report regarding the comparison of the effectiveness between the current strategies in Hokkaido and the alternative strategies for BVDV control measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: In this study, we investigated an outbreak of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) at a Hydropotes inermis (water deer) farm in Anhui Province, China. These results demonstrated that PPR viruses (PPRVs) can infect H. inermis and also revealed that virulent lineage II PPRVs exist in China, where they have been responsible for the deaths of wild animals. The government should pay close attention to the threat of PPRV epidemiology in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Viruses that affect the health of humans and farm animals can spread over long distances via atmospheric mechanisms. The phenomenon of atmospheric long‐distance dispersal (LDD) is associated with severe consequences because it may introduce pathogens into new areas. The introduction of new pathogens to Israel was attributed to LDD events numerous times. This provided the motivation for this study which is aimed to identify all the locations in the eastern Mediterranean that may serve as sources for pathogen incursion into Israel via LDD. This aim was achieved by calculating source–receptor relationship probability maps. These maps describe the probability that an infected vector or viral aerosol, once airborne, will have an atmospheric route that can transport it to a distant location. The resultant probability maps demonstrate a seasonal tendency in the probability of specific areas to serve as sources for pathogen LDD into Israel. Specifically, Cyprus’ season is the summer; southern Turkey and the Greek islands of Crete, Karpathos and Rhodes are associated with spring and summer; lower Egypt and Jordan may serve as sources all year round, except the summer months. The method used in this study can easily be implemented to any other geographic region. The importance of this study is the ability to provide a climatologically valid and accurate risk assessment tool to support long‐term decisions regarding preparatory actions for future outbreaks long before a specific outbreak occurs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coronaviruses are a diverse group of viruses that infect mammals and birds. Bats are reservoirs for several different coronaviruses in the Alphacoronavirus and Betacoronavirus genera. They also appear to be the natural reservoir for the ancestral viruses that generated the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus outbreaks. Here, we detected coronavirus sequences in next-generation sequence data created from Eonycteris spelaea faeces and urine. We also screened by PCR urine samples, faecal samples and rectal swabs collected from six species of bats in Singapore between 2011 and 2014, all of which were negative. The phylogenetic analysis indicates this novel strain is most closely related to lineage D Betacoronaviruses detected in a diverse range of bat species. This is the second time that coronaviruses have been detected in cave nectar bats, but the first coronavirus sequence data generated from this species. Bat species from which this group of coronaviruses has been detected are widely distributed across SE Asia, South Asia and Southern China. They overlap geographically, often share roosting sites and have been witnessed to forage on the same plant. The addition of sequence data from this group of viruses will allow us to better understand coronavirus evolution and host specificity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The host reservoir of Zaire ebolavirus (EBOV) remains elusive. One suggestion is that EBOV emerges in mammals when the precursor virus jumps from mayflies (or other riverine insects) to insectivorous bats. However, this does not fit with the current view that filoviruses cannot infect arthropods. Here, it is first argued that the evidence that arthropods are refractory is not definitive. Second, it is proposed that a combination of filovirus filament length and the high temperature (~42°C) experienced by an insect virus ingested by a flying bat, together with the large number of insects eaten by bats (e.g. during an ephemeral mass emergence of mayflies), facilitate jumping the species barrier. The length of a filovirus filament is related to the number of genome copies (GC). Predictions from a preliminary thermodynamic model developed here suggest that filament length could greatly affect EBOV infectivity to mammalian cells with infectivity peaking for filaments of a certain length. Importantly, the infectivity to mammals of even short filaments may be more than one million-fold higher than that for the single GC virion. Third, it is proposed that at the high temperature within the bat, the phospholipid phosphatidylserine in the virus envelope promotes filament formation through fusion of single GC particles within the ingested insect, thus hugely increasing their infectivity to bats. Forth, according to the thermodynamic model, increasing the temperature from 27°C (insect cell temperature at average air temperature in Guinea, West Africa) to 42°C (bat) could increase the affinity of the filaments for bat cells by 1-2 orders of magnitude, while having no effect on the binding affinity of the single GC virions. The thermodynamic model developed here is supported by the counterintuitive observation that high glycoprotein densities on the EBOV surface reduce its infectivity in contrast to other viruses such as HIV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Generally, capripoxvirus infections are host specific in nature and occasionally infect more than one species. In this study, an investigation was carried out from an outbreak of capripox in a mixed flock of sheep and goats which occurred in 2013 in the State of Jammu & Kashmir. The genetic analysis of P32, RPO30 and GPCR genes revealed that both goats and sheep were infected with goatpox virus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The circulation of zoonotic influenza A viruses including pH1N1 2009 and H5N1 continue to present a constant threat to animal and human populations. Recently, an H3N2 variant spread from pigs to humans and between humans in limited numbers. Accordingly, this research investigated a range of scenarios of the transmission dynamics of pH1N1 2009 virus at the swine-human interface while accounting for different percentages of swine workers initially immune. Furthermore, the feasibility of using NAADSM (North American Animal Disease Spread Model) applied as a one-health simulation model was assessed. The study population included 488 swine herds and 29, 707 households of people within a county in Ontario, Canada. Households were categorized as follows: (i) rural households with swine workers, (ii) rural households without swine workers, and (iii) urban households without swine workers. Forty-eight scenarios were investigated, based on the combination of six scenarios around the transmissibility of the virus at the interface and four vaccination coverage levels of swine workers (0-60%), all under two settings of either swine or human origin of the virus. Outcomes were assessed in terms of stochastic 'die-out' fraction, size and time to peak epidemic day, overall size and duration of the outbreaks. The modelled outcomes indicated that minimizing influenza transmissibility at the interface and targeted vaccination of swine workers had significant beneficial effects. Our results indicate that NAADSM can be used as a framework to model the spread and control of contagious zoonotic diseases among animal and human populations, under certain simplifying assumptions. Further evaluation of the model is required. In addition to these specific findings, this study serves as a benchmark that can provide useful input to a future one-health influenza modelling studies. Some pertinent information gaps were also identified. Enhanced surveillance and the collection of high-quality information for more accurate parameterization of such models are encouraged. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bovine papillomaviruses ( BPVs) are small DNA tumoral viruses able to induce benign cutaneous and/or mucosal epithelial lesions. Generally, the benign tumours affecting the skin or mucosa spontaneously regress, but under special circumstances, the defence system may be overwhelmed, thus leading to cancer, especially in the presence of immunosuppressant and mutagen agents from bracken fern. To date, thirteen different BPV genotypes have been associated with skin and mucosal tumours in cattle, and out of these, only four types ( BPV-1, -2, -5 and -13) cross-infect other species. Recent investigations in vivo have revealed new insights into the epidemiology and pathogenesis of this viral infection. This review briefly discusses viral epidemiology, will give data on BPV genome structure and viral genes and will describe the cellular events and new aspects of both cutaneous and mucosal tumours in large ruminants. Finally, some aspects of active immunization will be described. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot-and-mouth disease ( FMD) inflicts severe economic losses within infected countries and is arguably the most important trade-restricting livestock disease in the world. In southern Africa, infected African buffaloes ( Syncerus caffer) are the major reservoir of the South African Territories ( SAT) types of the virus. With the progressive expansion of transfrontier conservation areas ( TFCAs), the risk of FMD outbreaks is expected to increase due to a higher probability of buffalo/livestock contacts. To investigate the dynamics of FMD within and around the Great Limpopo TFCA ( GLTFCA), 5 herds of buffaloes were sampled in June 2010 to characterize circulating viruses in South Africa and Zimbabwe. Three SAT-2 and three SAT-3 viral strains were isolated in both countries, including one that was genetically linked with a recent SAT-2 outbreak in Mozambique in 2011. In addition, two groups of unvaccinated cattle ( n = 192) were serologically monitored for 1 year at the wildlife/livestock interface of Gonarezhou National Park ( GNP) in Zimbabwe between April 2009 and January 2010, using the liquid-phase blocking ELISA ( LPBE) and a test for antibodies directed against non-structural proteins ( NSP). Neither clinical signs nor vaccination of cattle were reported during the study, yet a high proportion of the monitored cattle showed antibody responses against SAT-3 and SAT-1. Antibodies against NSP were also detected in 10% of the monitored cattle. The results of this study suggest that cattle grazing in areas adjacent to the GLTFCA can be infected by buffalo or other infected livestock and that cattle trade movements can act as efficient disseminators of FMD viruses to areas several hundred kilometres from the virus source. Current methods of surveillance of FMD at the GLTFCA interface seem insufficient to control for FMD emergence and dissemination and require urgent reassessment and regional coordination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A recent report to the Australian Government identified concerns relating to Australia's capacity to respond to a medium to large outbreak of FMD. To assess the resources required, the AusSpread disease simulation model was used to develop a plausible outbreak scenario that included 62 infected premises in five different states at the time of detection, 28 days after the disease entered the first property in Victoria. Movements of infected animals and/or contaminated product/equipment led to smaller outbreaks in NSW, Queensland, South Australia and Tasmania. With unlimited staff resources, the outbreak was eradicated in 63 days with 54 infected premises and a 98% chance of eradication within 3 months. This unconstrained response was estimated to involve 2724 personnel. Unlimited personnel was considered unrealistic, and therefore, the course of the outbreak was modelled using three levels of staffing and the probability of achieving eradication within 3 or 6 months of introduction determined. Under the baseline staffing level, there was only a 16% probability that the outbreak would be eradicated within 3 months, and a 60% probability of eradication in 6 months. Deployment of an additional 60 personnel in the first 3 weeks of the response increased the likelihood of eradication in 3 months to 68%, and 100% in 6 months. Deployment of further personnel incrementally increased the likelihood of timely eradication and decreased the duration and size of the outbreak. Targeted use of vaccination in high-risk areas coupled with the baseline personnel resources increased the probability of eradication in 3 months to 74% and to 100% in 6 months. This required 25 vaccination teams commencing 12 days into the control program increasing to 50 vaccination teams 3 weeks later. Deploying an equal number of additional personnel to surveillance and infected premises operations was equally effective in reducing the outbreak size and duration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little information is available about the natural cycle of foot-and-mouth disease ( FMD) in the absence of control measures such as vaccination. Cameroon presents a unique opportunity for epidemiological studies because FMD vaccination is not practiced. We carried out a prospective study including serological, antigenic and genetic aspects of FMD virus ( FMDV) infections among different livestock production systems in the Far North of Cameroon to gain insight into the natural ecology of the virus. We found serological evidence of FMDV infection in over 75% of the animals sampled with no significant differences of prevalence observed among the sampled groups (i.e. market, sedentary, transboundary trade and mobile). We also found antibodies reactive to five of the seven FMDV serotypes (A, O, SAT1, SAT2 and SAT3) among the animals sampled. Finally, we were able to genetically characterize viruses obtained from clinical and subclinical FMD infections in Cameroon. Serotype O viruses grouped into two topotypes (West and East Africa). SAT2 viruses grouped with viruses from Central and Northern Africa, notably within the sublineage causing the large epidemic in Northern Africa in 2012, suggesting a common origin for these viruses. This research will guide future interventions for the control of FMD such as improved diagnostics, guidance for vaccine formulation and epidemiological understanding in support of the progressive control of FMD in Cameroon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extensive and rapid spread of Schmallenberg virus ( SBV) in Sweden was detected by consecutive serological bulk milk surveys conducted before and after the vector season of 2012. Whereas <0.2% of cattle herds tested positive in a first survey in spring 2012, SBV-specific antibodies were detected in almost 75% of 723 bulk milk samples randomly collected all over the country 6 months later, beyond the 65th northern latitude, and with an observed spatial distribution suggesting multiple introductions of the virus. Circulation of virus was later confirmed by the detection of SBV in malformed lambs and calves starting from November 2012 and January 2013, respectively. These observations suggest SBV circulation starting from July 2012, with a peak in transmission between August and October. A local heterogeneity of within-herd seroprevalence was found, indicating that SBV-naïve animals remain also in highly infected areas enabling the re-emergence of the infection in the coming vector season. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To estimate the date of introduction of Schmallenberg virus ( SBV) into France, the prevalence of antibodies against the virus was determined monthly in cattle from two northern departments from August 2011 to April 2012. Seropositive cattle were detected from October 2011 in both departments with a prevalence of 55.6% in the westernmost department (Meurthe-et-Moselle) and of 12.7% in the easternmost department (Manche). Schmallenberg virus seroprevalence then increased rapidly to high levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Between January and June 2013, nine stillborn bovine foetuses with congenital malformations from nine cattle herds located in Salamanca (central Spain) were detected. Necropsy was performed on two calves. Pathological lesions together with molecular genetics and serological results allowed a definitive diagnosis: first confirmation of Schmallenberg virus ( SBV) infection in cattle in Spain. SBV was detected in different tissues and organic fluids in both animals including blood, suggesting a possible viraemia. The umbilical cord was also positive for the presence of SBV in both animals. The former tissue provides an easy to obtain sample and might be a sample of choice when necropsy is carried out in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We described the aetiological agents of outbreaks of bovine ephemeral fever ( BEF) that occurred in 1985 and 2012 in Turkey, and identify mutations in the viruses from both outbreaks. Outbreaks have emerged periodically every 4-5 years in the same regions in Turkey. Because these regions are located in a subtropical climatic zone, good conditions for vector populations exist. The results of this study show that the BEFVs from outbreaks in Turkey vary significantly. Effective prevention will require a vaccine that contains BEFVs from different genetic clusters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schmallenberg virus ( SBV), which emerged in Northwestern Europe in 2011, is an arthropod-borne virus affecting primarily ruminants. Based on the results of two cross-sectional studies conducted in the Belgian ruminant population during winter 2011-2012, we concluded that at the end of 2011, almost the whole population had already been infected by SBV. A second cross-sectional serological study was conducted in the Belgian cattle population during winter 2012-2013 to examine the situation after the 2012 transmission period and to analyse the change in immunity after 1 year. A total of 7130 blood samples collected between 1st January and 28 February 2013 in 188 herds were tested for the presence of SBV-specific antibodies. All sampled herds tested positive and within-herd seroprevalence was estimated at 65.66% (95% CI: 62.28-69.04). A statistically significant decrease was observed between the beginning and the end of 2012. On the other hand, age-cohort-specific seroprevalence stayed stable from 1 year to the other. During winter 2012-2013, calves between 6 and 12 months had a seroprevalence of 20.59% (95% CI: 15.34-25.83), which seems to be an indication that SBV was still circulating at least in some parts of Belgium during summer-early autumn 2012. Results showed that the level of immunity against SBV of the animals infected has not decreased and remained high after 1 year and that the spread of the virus has slowed down considerably during 2012. This study also indicated that in the coming years, there are likely to be age cohorts of unprotected animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The monitoring of both the spread and clinical impact of Schmallenberg virus ( SBV) infection within its full host range is important for the control of the epidemic and potential new outbreaks. In France, a national surveillance plan based on voluntary notifications of congenital malformations in newborn ruminants revealed that goats were the less affected host species. However, seroprevalence studies only targeted sheep and cattle, preventing accurate estimations of the real impact of SBV infection in goats. Here, a serological survey was conducted in the highest goat-specialized region of France between June 2012 and January 2013. A total of 1490 goat sera from 50 herds were analysed by ELISA. The between-herd and within-herd prevalences were estimated at 62% and 13.1%, respectively. Seroprevalence was not uniformly distributed throughout the territory and markedly differed between intensive and extensive herds. The low within-herd seroprevalence demonstrates that a large fraction of the French goat population remains susceptible to SBV infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bovine ephemeral fever ( BEF) is an economically important vector-borne viral disease of cattle and buffalo. It has been reported from most of the world's tropical and subtropical regions. In the last few decades, outbreaks of BEF have occurred in Israel almost every other year. Several serological studies have demonstrated a wide range of wild animal species that are positive for BEF virus ( BEFV) antibodies. However, the question of whether wild animals and domesticated species other than cattle also play an important role in the maintenance and transmission of BEFV in Israel remains. Here, we examined the prevalence of anti- BEFV antibodies in 942 samples collected from various wild, semi-captive and domesticated animal species during the years 2000-2009 using the serum neutralization ( SN) method. SN test revealed the presence of BEFV-neutralizing antibodies in nine samples (0.96%), from three species: Bubalus bubalis (4/29, 13.79%), Gazella g. gazella (3/68, 4.44%) and Dama d. mesopotamica (2/296, 0.68%). All positive samples were collected in areas of earlier outbreaks. The low prevalence of positive animals and the solid correlation with prior outbreaks indicate that the tested species probably do not serve as virus reservoirs and may play only a minor role in the maintenance of BEFV in the Middle East. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sixteen sheep and 18 cattle were followed up during 1 year to estimate the duration of immunity induced by inactivated bluetongue virus serotype 8 ( BTV-8) vaccines (sheep and cattle) and a bluetongue virus serotype 1 ( BTV-1) vaccine (cattle) under field conditions using cELISA and seroneutralization test ( SNT). Four sheep never seroconverted. Those that seroconverted were all seronegative by BTV-8 SNT at the date of last sampling [378 days post-vaccination (dpv)]. Eight sheep were still positive by competitive ELISA ( cELISA) 378 dpv. All the cattle seroconverted. At the end of the study, eight and 11 cattle were still positive by BTV-8 SNT and cELISA, respectively (335 dpv); and nine were still positive by BTV-1 SNT (301 dpv). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Between late February and May 2012, a preliminary anonym survey was conducted among sheep farmers in south of Belgium in order to contribute to future estimations of the economic losses caused by Schmallenberg virus ( SBV). Based on clinical signs consistent with SBV infection, this survey involved 13 meat sheep flocks considered as positive flocks with subsequent SBV detection by RT-q PCR [ SBV-positive flocks ( PF); total of 961 animals], and 13 meat sheep flocks considered as negative flocks ( NF; total of 331 animals). These preliminary results indicated several significant characteristics that were more present in PF than in NF. These include an increased rate of abortions (6.7% in PF versus 3.2% in NF), of lambs born at term but presenting malformations (10.1% in PF versus 2.0% in NF) and of dystocia (10.1% in PF versus 3.4% in NF). Lamb mortality during the first week of life was reported more frequently in PF (8 of 13 PF, 61.5%) than in NF (1 of 13 NF, 7.7%). In PF, the observed prolificacy rate was 2-fold lower (93%) than expected (186%). The implementation of a survey at larger scale, including a high number of breeders, is necessary to allow a more detailed analysis of the SBV impact in the sheep sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A serological survey to detect Schmallenberg virus ( SBV)-specific antibodies by ELISA was organized in the Belgian sheep population to study the seroprevalence at the end of the epidemic. One thousand eighty-two sheep samples which were collected from 83 herds all over Belgium between November 2011 and April 2012 were tested. The overall within-herd seroprevalence and the intraclass correlation coefficient were estimated at 84.31% (95% CI: 84.19-84.43) and 0.34, respectively. The overall between-herd seroprevalence was 98.03% (95% CI: 97.86-98.18). A spatial cluster analysis identified a cluster of six farms with significantly lower within-herd seroprevalence in the south of Belgium compared with the rest of the population ( P = 0.04). It was shown that seroprevalence was associated to flock density and that the latter explained the presence of the spatial cluster. Additionally, 142 goat samples from eight different herds were tested for SBV-specific antibodies. The within-herd seroprevalence in goats was estimated at 40.68% (95% CI: 23.57-60.4%). The results of the current study provided evidence that almost every Belgian sheep herd has been in contact with SBV during 2011 and should be taken into consideration as part of comprehensive SBV surveillance and control strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pakistan at present is having more than 60 million head of goats, which consist of about 37 well-recognized breeds found in different regions of the country. Although the goat farming on commercial level is escalating in Pakistan, there are threats, which result this initiative into a loss. Among these threats, Peste des Petits Ruminants ( PPR) outbreaks are causing huge economic damages. In this study, three outbreaks of PPR were confirmed at three different commercial farms in various regions of Punjab province and their economic impact on small ruminants farming was calculated. The disease started after 1-2 months of the establishment of these farms as the animals were purchased from different livestock markets. Disease started with sudden onset of respiratory and enteric clinical signs and spreads quickly. Disease caused mortality and morbidity of 10-15% and 20-40%, respectively, within a time period of 01-03 weeks. At these three farms, 116 of 365 animals exhibited the clinical disease, with an overall morbidity rate of 31.78%. A total of 43 animals died with mortality rate of 11.78% (43/365) causing a direct financial loss of $4300 (Pakistan Rupees 430 000/-), while the indirect cost due to treatment, loss of animal body condition, reduction in market value, increase veterinary services and labour was $7911 (Pak Rs. 791 100/-). Taken together, the results demonstrate that there is an urgent need to assess the economic impact of the disease throughout the country and to give proper emphasis for controlling PPR in sensitive regions where it is discouraging the investment in goat farming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an increasing concern that free-ranging domestic dog ( Canis familiaris) populations may serve as reservoirs of pathogens which may be transmitted to wildlife. We documented the prevalence of antibodies to three viral pathogens, canine parvovirus ( CPV), canine distemper virus ( CDV) and canine adenovirus ( CAV), in free-ranging dog and sympatric Indian fox ( Vulpes bengalensis) populations in and around the Great Indian Bustard Wildlife Sanctuary, in Maharashtra, central India. A total of 219 dogs and 33 foxes were sampled during the study period. Ninety-three percentage of dogs and 87% of foxes were exposed to one or more of the three pathogens. Exposure rates in dogs were high: >88% for CPV, >72% for CDV and 71% for CAV. A large proportion of adult dogs had antibodies against these pathogens due to seroconversion following earlier natural infection. The high prevalence of exposure to these pathogens across the sampling sessions, significantly higher exposure rates of adults compared with juveniles, and seroconversion in some unvaccinated dogs documented during the study period suggests that these pathogens are enzootic. The prevalence of exposure to CPV, CDV and CAV in foxes was 48%, 18% and 52%, respectively. Further, a high rate of mortality was documented in foxes with serologic evidence of ongoing CDV infection. Dogs could be playing a role in the maintenance and transmission of these pathogens in the fox population, but our findings show that most dogs in the population are immune to these pathogens by virtue of earlier natural infection, and therefore, these individuals make little current or future contribution to viral maintenance. Vaccination of this cohort will neither greatly improve their collective immune status nor contribute to herd immunity. Our findings have potentially important implications for dog disease control programmes that propose using canine vaccination as a tool for conservation management of wild carnivore populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We implemented a questionnaire-based methodology targeting veterinary field practitioners to evaluate clinical and economic impact of Schmallenberg virus in Belgium. First suspicious cases were detected as soon as July 2011. The mean cost for individual symptomatic treatment was 65 or 107 Euros, in case of fatal outcome or apparent recovery, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recent outbreak caused by Schmallenberg virus, which affected sheep, goats and cattle in Europe, highlighted the importance of having a robust surveillance plan capable of monitoring abortions and malformations in the livestock offspring. In this context, bluetongue viruses ( BTVs) represented and represent one of the major threats to the European livestock industry. Aiming to improve the understanding on BTV cross placental transmission and serotype involvement, in this retrospective study foetal spleens and/or brains of 663 ovines, 429 bovines, 155 goats and 17 buffaloes were tested for the presence of BTV by virus isolation. BTV vaccine strains were isolated from 31 foetuses (2.4%; 95% CI: 1.7-3.4%): 24 (3.6%; 95% CI: 2.4-5.3%) from ovine foetal tissues; 6 (1.4%; 95% CI: 0.6-3.0%) from bovine foetal tissues and 1 (0.6%; 95% CI: 0.2-3.5%) from the spleen of a caprine foetus. All foetuses were from animals vaccinated with either BTV-2 or BTV-2, and BTV-9 modified live vaccines ( MLVs) produced by Onderstepoort Biological Products ( OBP), South Africa. Among the 31 isolated vaccine strains, serotype 9 ( n = 28) was more frequently isolated ( P < 0.05) than serotype 2 ( n = 3). In two cases infectious vaccine strains were found in the foetal tissues 2 months after the vaccine administration. Other pathogens known to be causative agents of abortion in ruminants were not detected nor isolated. This study demonstrates, for the first time, that BTV-2 and BTV-9 vaccine strains are able to cross the placental barrier of sheep, cattle and goats. BTV-2 and BTV-9 vaccine strains are able to infect foetuses and cause abortions or malformations depending on the period of pregnancy at the time of vaccination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A sensitive reverse-transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) assay was developed for the rapid detection of Tembusu virus (TMUV) infection. The reaction was performed in one step in a single tube at 64°C for 45 min, with SYBR Green I dye added prior to amplification. The detection limit of the RT-LAMP assay was approximately 10 copies/μl, and no cross-reaction with other avian viruses was observed. The assay was evaluated further for the diagnosis of TMUV in field samples and compared with conventional RT-PCR, demonstrating that results of the RT-LAMP assay corresponded to those of conventional RT-PCR. In conclusion, RT-LAMP with SYBR Green I dye was shown to be a sensitive, simple assay for the rapid diagnosis of TMUV infection in ducks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary This article is a review on post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS), the first described disease among the porcine circovirus diseases (PCVD). Post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome has, since its appearance in Canada in 1991, been seen in all major pig producing countries. To diagnose PMWS at herd level typical clinical appearance consisting of wasting and increased mortality must be combined with finding at autopsy of diseased pigs, where typical microscopic findings in the lymphatic tissue must be present. Post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome significantly increases the mortality and reduces the daily weight gain in weaner pig and/or in finishing pigs. Post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome can be transmitted by pig-to-pig contact and some studies point at airborne transmission as a possibility. Studies in Europe have shown several risk factors that either increase or decrease the risk for a pig herd to be affected by PMWS. At the pig level, studies have shown the importance of maternal immunity as protection for subsequent development of PMWS. To control PMWS, good production management and control of other diseases are crucial. Since 2004, commercial vaccines against Porcine Circo Virus type 2 have been coming on the market and many studies have shown great benefits of these to control PMWS. Today, sow vaccines as well as piglet vaccines are available in most countries. An extensive meta-analysis of many of the vaccines has shown a comparable good efficacy of the vaccines in significantly reducing mortality and increasing weight gain of the pigs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary In the past two decades or so, a number of viruses have emerged in the global swine population. Some, such as porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) and porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), cause economically important diseases in pigs, whereas others such as porcine torque teno virus (TTV), now known as Torque teno sus virus (TTSuV), porcine bocavirus (PBoV) and related novel parvoviruses, porcine kobuvirus, porcine toroviruses (PToV) and porcine lymphotropic herpesviruses (PLHV), are mostly subclinical in swine herds. Although some emerging swine viruses such as swine hepatitis E virus (swine HEV), porcine endogenous retrovirus (PERV) and porcine sapovirus (porcine SaV) may have a limited clinical implication in swine health, they do pose a potential public health concern in humans due to zoonotic (swine HEV) or potential zoonotic (porcine SaV) and xenozoonotic (PERV, PLHV) risks. Other emerging viruses such as Nipah virus, Bungowannah virus and Menangle virus not only cause diseases in pigs but some also pose important zoonotic threat to humans. This article focuses on emerging and re-emerging swine viruses that have a limited or uncertain clinical and economic impact on pig health. The transmission, epidemiology and pathogenic potential of these viruses are discussed. In addition, the two economically important emerging viruses, PRRSV and PCV2, are also briefly discussed to identify important knowledge gaps. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary This review deals with the aetiology and the diagnosis of bovine viral abortion. While the abortion rates on beef and dairy cattle farms usually do not exceed 10%, significant economic losses because of abortion storms may be encountered. Determining the cause of abortions is usually a challenge, and it generally remains obscure in more than 50% of the necropsy submitted foetuses. Bovine viral diarrhoea virus and bovine herpesvirus-1 are the most common viruses causally associated with bovine abortions in farmed cattle globally. Rift Valley fever virus and bluetongue virus are important insect-transmitted abortogenic viruses. The geographic distribution of these two viruses is primarily dependent on the distribution of the insect vector, but direct transmission is possible. Recent global warming and subsequent insect vector expansion, coupled with the increase in international trade of animals and animal products, have been important factors in recent geographic advances of those two viruses. Bovine herpesviruses-4 and 5 in cattle, as well as other less frequent vector-borne viruses including epizootic haemorrhagic disease virus, Aino virus, Wesselsbron virus and lumpy skin disease virus, are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious and economically important viral disease with high morbidity and reduced productivity of affected animals. We studied the heat intolerance (HI) (panting) syndrome and the effect of FMD virus (FMDV) infection on thyroid gland function in Indian cattle ( Bos indicus). Experimental infection with FMDV Asia 1 resulted in a mild form of disease with superficial lesions. Heat intolerance syndrome and its signs were not observed among the recovered animals. Subtle changes in the serum level of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T) and thyroxine (T) were observed. However, there were no distinct histological changes in the thyroid gland, and FMDV antigens were not detected in the thyroid tissues. Our results thus suggest that the absence of panting syndrome in FMD-affected Bos indicus cattle may be associated with intact thyroid gland function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An incursion of classical swine fever virus (CSFV) into the domestic pig population in South Africa, identified in 2005, raised the concern that infection might spread to wildlife species and be maintained in these hosts. This study sought to determine whether two wildlife Suidae species present in South Africa, the bushpig ( Potamochoerus larvatus) and the common warthog ( Phacochoerus africanus) , could support productive CSFV infection. Both species could be infected with CSFV and transmitted infection to in-contact animals of the same species. Viral antigen and RNA genome were detected in blood/serum and animals that survived initial infection seroconverted approximately 10-14 days post-inoculation. Viral RNA remained detectable in nasal and saliva secretions for prolonged periods until monitoring ended at 42-44 days after initial challenge. These data suggest that both Suidae species could serve to spread circulating CSFV within wild populations, with implications for disease control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated bovine coronavirus (BCoV) as an etiological agent in cattle with clinical respiratory and digestive signs using 147 feces and 199 nasal swab samples. A total of 18 test samples (16 feces and 2 nasal swap samples) were detected positive by ELISA and/or RT-PCR targeting the BCoV N gene. The partial S1 gene regions of BCoVs (An-4 and An-11) detected in feces samples from two herd-mate dairy calves were compared. Virological and serological results indicated that BCoVs are widespread in Turkey and are likely etiological agents in diarrhea cases in calves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent European guidelines facilitate the use of emergency vaccines during outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease. Antiviral drugs could be used as a complementary measure. This study aimed at developing a small animal model to assess the in vivo activity of early antiviral lead molecules with anti-foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) activity in vitro. In a first attempt, several FMDV strains were titrated in Balb/c mice. Inoculations with O Manisa or C Noville did not induce clinical disease, whereas Asia1 Shamir induced death too rapidly [i.e. within 4 days post-inoculation (dpi)]. Therefore, we switched to severe combined immunodeficient mice which are frequently used as a model for viral infections and experimental therapeutics. Strain O Manisa did not induce clinical disease, but titrations with A Iraq, C Noville or Asia1 Shamir resulted in virus-induced morbidity (including respiratory problems and weight loss) with subsequent mortality. Inoculations with strain A Iraq resulted in a reproducible mean time of death of 6 dpi (this was shorter for the other strains). In this newly developed rodent model, strain A Iraq seems the most suited to assess the in vivo anti-FMDV activity of selective inhibitors of FMDV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reviews the options for use of virus detection techniques for decentralized testing of samples from suspected secondary outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). These options have been expanded by the advent of new tests including disposable lateral flow devices (LFDs) that detect viral proteins and portable RT-PCR equipment that detects viral RNA. LFDs have been developed with similar sensitivity to antigen detection ELISA but with the ability to provide a result 1–30 min after the addition of epithelium or vesicular fluid. Portable RT-PCR platforms are being developed that can detect FMD viral RNA in blood, epithelium or other materials with minimal sample processing and with high sensitivity, in as little as 60 min in some cases. These devices may be used on infected farms as pen-side tests, in regional, local or mobile laboratories, or in National Reference Laboratories (NRL). Advantages and disadvantages of different testing options are considered to inform decisions on the optimal strategies for different national circumstances. Issues include validation and quality control, containment needs, availability of test devices and reagents, the decision tree for declaring an outbreak, training issues and provision of samples for subsequent viral characterization. Tests to confirm the diagnosis of the index case of an outbreak of FMD should continue to be carried out in the NRL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This report describes the characterization of a new genotype of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) type A responsible for recent FMD outbreaks in the Middle East. Initially identified in samples collected in 2003 from Iran, during 2005 and 2006 this FMDV lineage (proposed to be named A-Iran-05) spread into Saudi Arabia and Jordan and then further west into Turkey reaching European Thrace in January 2007. Most recently A-Iran-05 has been found in Bahrain. To the east of Iran, it has been recognized in Afghanistan (2004–07) and Pakistan (2006–07). Throughout the region, this lineage is now the predominant genotype of FMDV serotype A sampled, and has appeared to have replaced the A-Iran-96 and A-Iran-99 strains which were previously encountered. In August 2007, a new A-Iran-05 sub-lineage (which we have called A-Iran-05ARD-07) was identified in Ardahan, Turkey, close to the border with Georgia. This new sub-lineage appeared to predominate in Turkey in 2008, but has, so far, not been identified in any other country. Vaccine matching tests revealed that the A-Iran-05 viruses are antigenically different to A-Iran-96 and more like A22. These findings emphasize the importance of undertaking continued surveillance in the Middle East and Central Asia in order to detect and monitor the emergence and spread of new FMDV strains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Twenty-four specific pathogen free pigs were inoculated intradermally at the front-right heel bulb with 0.5 ml of viral suspension containing 106.0tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50) with the porcinophillic strain (O/Taiwan/97) of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) isolated from the epizootic of FMD in Taiwan in 1997. Two pigs were euthanatized at 8 h, 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 12, 15, 21, 26 and 63 days post-inoculation (DPI), and two pigs remained for long-term observation and terminated at 400 DPI. Typical symptoms of depression and inappetence appeared in the inoculated pigs at 1 DPI and subsided by 7 DPI. Vesicles developed in the epidermis over non-inoculated metacarpals joints at 1 DPI and vesicles in the mouth and on the snout were noticed at 2 DPI. Lesions in the feet were characterized by necrosis in the stratum spinosum, intercellular oedema, and vesicle formation accompanied by neutrophilic and mononuclear cells infiltration. Baby hamster kidney-21 cell cultures were used for virus isolation and viraemia was detected beginning at 1 DPI and persisted till 3 DPI and was no longer detectable when neutralizing antibody (NA) developed at 4 DPI. However, virus was isolated from skin samples from 1 to 12 DPI, from faeces from 2 to 8 DPI, and from 95% oesophageal-pharyngeal (OP) fluid samples at 8 HPI. Among the samples tested in this study, skin vesicles had the highest virus titre, 108.63 TCID50. No virus was isolated from the skin or visceral organs obtained from post-mortem at day 15 after infection and the virus was not detectable from the OP fluid from 12 DPI till the end of this study (400 DPI). By using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, viral RNA was detected first from the tissues at the inoculation site at 1 DPI, and still detectable at 21 DPI. Neutralizing antibody emerged at 4 DPI and the geometric mean NA titre reached to 1:861 and 1:1097 at 21 and 301 DPI respectively. The re-growth of hoof began at 21 DPI; however, minimal lesions including remnants of the old hoof were still presented at the end of this study. These results suggest that monitoring pig’s hooves for residual lesions should be part of the FMD diagnosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is one of the biggest threats to animal health in European countries. In the last 22 years (1985–2006), FMD has occurred 37 times in 14 European countries . Serotype O was most frequently involved in these outbreaks followed by A, C and Asia 1. Sometimes, epidemics were very limited and at other times, they were the cause of devastating economic losses. In most cases (22/37), the origin of the outbreaks could not be determined. For some of these outbreaks, however, routes of introduction and spread were identified through epidemiological inquiries. Moreover, in some cases, the origin of the virus was also traced by phylogenetic analysis of the partial or complete sequences of VP1 genes. Lessons learned from the outbreaks are still useful as most of the same risk factors persist. However, efforts made by FMD-free countries to help those where the disease is endemic are a valuable strategy for the reduction of the global risk. The present and the future potential sources of FMD infection need to be identified to best focus European efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is a clinical syndrome in animals due to FMD virus that exists in seven serotypes, whereby recovery from one sero-type does not confer immunity against the other six. So when considering intervention strategies in endemic settings, it is important to take account of the characteristics of the different serotypes in different ecological systems. FMD serotypes are not uniformly distributed in the regions of the world where the disease still occurs. For example, the cumulative incidence of FMD serotypes show that six of the seven serotypes of FMD (O, A, C, SAT-1, SAT-2, SAT-3) have occurred in Africa, while Asia contends with four sero-types (O, A, C, Asia-1), and South America with only three (O, A, C). Periodically there have been incursions of Types SAT-1 and SAT-2 from Africa into the Middle East. This paper describes the global dynamics for the seven sero-types and attempts to define FMD epidemiological clusters in the different regions of the world. These have been described on a continent by continent basis. The review has reaffirmed that the movement of infected animals is the most important factor in the spread of FMD within the endemically infected regions. It also shows that the eco-system based approach for defining the epidemiological patterns of FMD in endemic, which was originally described in South America, can apply readily to other parts of the world. It is proposed that any coordinated regional or global strategy for FMD control should be based on a sound epidemiological assessment of the incidence and distribution of FMD, identifying risk sources as either primary or secondary endemic eco-systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the wake of on-going successful programmes for global eradication of rinderpest and the current effort to contain the spread of avian influenza, the progressive world-wide control of FMD must be regarded as a major contribution to the international public good. FMD is the single most animal disease constraint to international trade in animal products. Its control is relevant, on the one hand, to protecting the livestock industries of industrialised countries and, on the other, to the livelihoods and income generation of developing countries, where, as a general rule, FMD continues to be endemic. The strategy that is advocated in this paper is one that is based on progressive risk reduction of FMD in the context of progressive market access of livestock commodities from developing countries. It is suggested that FMD control should be linked to improvement in livelihoods of livestock dependent communities in the FMD endemic settings. It is expected that this in turn will lead to increasing demand for effective national veterinary services and disease surveillance. This strategy has also taken lessons from the global rinderpest eradication programme and regional FMD control programmes in Europe and South America. The strategy that is advocated for the progressive control of FMD in the endemic settings is based on a seven stage process within a horizon of about 30 years, namely: (1) Assessing and defining national FMD status; (2) instituting vaccination and movement control; (3) suppressing virus transmission to achieve absence of clinical disease; (4) achieving freedom from FMD with vaccination in accordance with the OIE standards; (5) achieving freedom from FMD without vaccination in accordance with the OIE standards; (6) extending FMD free zones; and (7) maintaining FMD Freedom. Concomitant with progressive FMD control, there needs be the encouragement of such risk reduction measures as in-country commodity processing in order to encourage regulated trade in livestock commodities without unduly increasing the risk of disease spread. Finally, the progressive control of FMD should also be seen as part of reducing the overall, world-wide threat of infectious diseases to human health and economic development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pestiviruses, a genetically and antigenically highly diverse group, include one of the most historically significant swine pathogens, that is, classical swine fever virus. In Australia, investigations into swine outbreaks characterized by neonatal mortality, stillbirths and mummified foetuses resulted in the discovery of a new pestivirus, Bungowannah virus. This finding raised the possibility that Bungowannah virus, or a variant thereof, was circulating in swine herds elsewhere in the World. If so, it raised the possibility of a pestivirus emerging as a new swine disease with unknown consequences for animal health and food safety. Thus, we developed three specific qRT- PCR assays to evaluate tissue samples from undiagnosed cases of abortion or respiratory disease for evidence of Bungowannah virus. Examination of 64 samples collected between the Fall of 2007 and Spring of 2010 tested negative for all three genes examined. We conclude that Bungowannah-like pestivirus is unlikely to be present in swine in the upper Midwestern USA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Because Schmallenberg virus ( SBV) was first reported in domestic ruminants in Northern Italy in February 2012, we conducted a serosurvey to assess the presence of SBV-specific antibodies in free-ranging alpine ruminants. The tested serum samples were from chamois (23) and red deer (352) hunted from 2007 to 2013. All of the serum samples collected through September, 2012, tested negative, whereas a single chamois serum and 21 red deer sera taken during the 2012-2013 hunting season tested positive for the presence of SBV antibodies. Because this serosurvey is suggestive of an active SBV circulation in Alpine wildlife, targeted surveillance should be performed on wild ruminants to monitor the spread of the virus and to assess the epidemiological role of wildlife at the interface with domestic animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was carried out to determine the current state of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in different animal species in Sharkia governorate in Egypt. In addition, we investigated the spreading of the virus through water and soil in the animal environment as well as by rodents. The isolation rates of FMD virus in tissue culture were 39.6%, 11.4%, 41.2% and 100% for cattle, buffalo, sheep and goat respectively. All animals did not show any clinical signs for FMD. In addition, the virus was isolated from the milk of an animal as well as from a water sample while all soil samples were negative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]