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The environmental issues within the transport industry need to be given priority attention. Optimizing the transport structure and promoting low-carbon transport are essential measures for achieving carbon emission reduction. However, the rail-water multimodal transport scale is currently limited. The government has to intervene in the market through incentive policies, so how to expand the revenue of carriers and enhance the volume has become a major dilemma. Our paper constructs a transport system that includes road, water, and railway, and examines the impact of incentive policies on separate stakeholders. It is discovered that incentive policies can increase the revenue of carriers and simultaneously attract more shippers to elect rail-water multimodal transport. Subsidy policy can hasten the structural transformation of inland transport, making railway transport volume rise. Unfortunately, although the dry port policy may enhance the revenue of railway carriers, it leads to an apparent decline in the revenue of road-water multimodal transport participants. However, the subsidy policy can create a win-win scenario for multiple carriers while achieving carbon emission reduction, but to the detriment of social welfare. Additionally, the paper compares the interactions between diverse incentive policies and pivotal factors such as transport time. The conclusions of our research serve strategic recommendations for maximizing carriers revenues and provide support for government decision-making. • The impact of incentive policies on the rail-water multimodal transport is inspected. • Subsidy policy can make carriers better off, but may have adverse effects on social welfare. • Subsidy policy expands carrier volume and stimulates transport structure transformation. • Although dry port is conducive to social welfare, it hurts the revenue of carriers. • The dry port is beneficial for achieving long-distance carbon emissions reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

COVID-19 has represented a watershed in people's lifestyle. One important consequence has been the change in how people buy groceries online/offline that represent the most frequent shopping-related trip any household performs. Since this has substantially different transport and environmental implications, it is crucial to investigate what are the COVID-19-induced variations. This paper estimates both travel and environmental impacts grocery channel choice implies by comparing, in a diachronic fashion, the pre and during COVID-19 situation in Norway, considering alternative scenarios describing different service configurations for each channel considered. Stated preferences are used to estimate market shares for grocery purchase distinguishing between different channels: in-store, home delivery and click&pick. The robust comparative analysis between the two time periods is guaranteed by the use of the same methodological approach in the same geographical context. Results show that total emissions are lower during the pandemic and adopting a free delivery strategy not only increases home delivery market shares but also produces the lowest level of CO2 emissions regardless of COVID-19. The results obtained are particularly relevant in the "new normal" the world is experiencing both from a public policymaking perspective, when promoting transport-related interventions to curb emissions, and from a private standpoint, when customising market strategies to increase sales and profits. • COVID-19 has represented a watershed in people's lifestyle. • Investigating changes in how people buy groceries online/offline is important. • Stated preferences are used to estimate grocery market shares for different channels. • The paper estimates travel and environmental impacts pre and during COVID-19 via scenario analysis. • Results are particularly relevant for both the public and private sector in the "new normal" conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a novel aviation CO 2 emissions reduction method by introducing a market-based incentive mechanism. An aviation carbon emissions prediction model is proposed to characterize both the microscopic flight dynamics and the macroscopic air traffic demand trend. Based on emissions prediction, a linear climate response model is applied to evaluate the environmental impact of the aviation carbon emissions. Finally, a market-based framework for aviation CO 2 emissions reduction is established based on a two-phase carbon trading model, which provides a piecewise charge method through emission taxation and cap-and-trade. A case study is carried out to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed framework using a real-world dataset from the Hefei Air Traffic Control Zone in China. Three scenarios are defined to describe the possible development speed of sustainable aviation fuel application in the future: not applied, medium-speed development, and high-speed development. The results show that the carbon peak will be reached in 2025 in the high-speed development scenario, when the emission amount and associated environmental impact will be reduced by 23.7% and 22.3%, respectively. Thus, the market-based framework proposed in this paper can effectively reduce aviation CO 2 emissions and mitigate the effects of global warming. • An aviation CO 2 emissions prediction model is proposed considering both microscopic flight dynamics and macroscopic traffic demand. • A more efficient market-based CO 2 emission reduction framework is developed based on a two-phase carbon trading model by means of taxation and cap-and-trade. • Case study shows that the proposed method has a more optimal incentive for CO 2 emission reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ports are essential and strategic nodes of international trade and economic activities. The integration of port resources helps enhance the optimal division of port functions to further promote economic development. This paper explores the evolutionary trends of port integration policy from 2011 to 2021 in China through a text-mining approach. We first used the Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) topic analysis method to analyze the port integration policies and summarize the evolutionary trends of port policies. In addition, an association analysis was conducted to explore port integration policies' impacts by examining their relationships among the environmental protection, digitalization level, and port development scale. Our findings suggested that China's port integration policy has evolved from specific and simple to abstract and complicated at the managerial level. Port development has enriched from infrastructure construction to the ideology of economic development. Our findings show that China's port integration is gradually improving the port operation. The findings of the study contribute to the extant literature by analyzing the port integration policy evolution in China and can be referred to by other countries. • Text mining method was used to explore the port integration policy evolution. • Port integration policy evolved from specific and simple to abstract and complicated. • Port development enriched from basic infrastructure to the governance model. • The evolution of port integration policy was related to reducing carbon emissions in the port sector. • The evolution of port integration policy made the ports intelligent in association with digital technology such as big data and AI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In September 2020, the European Union (EU) decided to include the maritime industry into the EU emissions trading system to effectively control carbon emissions from ships, namely the maritime emissions trading system (METS). Various allocation and trading schemes are adopted in practice. This paper investigates a comparison of allocation and trading schemes of the METS from the perspective of liner shipping carriers and regulators, respectively. We explore how to determine the optimal allocation and trading scheme of the METS and how the liner shipping route (LSR) choice decision (following or avoiding the METS) and carbon emissions will be affected. For liner shipping carriers, we use a mixed-integer linear programming model that aims to reduce carriers' costs to formulate our problem. For regulators, we present a bi-level programming model that aims to reduce carbon emissions. In numerical experiments, we further analyze the impact of joining the METS on the scheme choice, LSR choice and emissions by considering the European Economic Area and the Red Sea being covered by the METS. Numerical experiments are provided to show the effectiveness of our proposed models. • Investigate allocation and trading schemes of the maritime emission trading system. • Propose a liner shipping route choice problem. • Develop a mixed-integer linear programming model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In view of the huge contribution of transportation to global greenhouse gas emissions, it is imperative to embrace more carbon-efficient transportation modes to support our environmental goals. However, few studies offer empirical evidence to evaluate the potential of shifting transportation model for carbon emissions reduction. This paper, aiming at addressing this gap, conducts an empirical study to assess the CO2 emissions reduction through modal shift from road to waterway transport (MSRW). It utilizes primary data collected from more than 200 voyages of 92 enterprises through one national pilot project on CO2 emission reduction in the Quzhou region initiated by the Chinese central government. Specifically, it employs empirical analysis based on bottom-up methodologies to investigate the potential for CO2 emission reduction through MSRW. The results reveal that MSRW can aid to benefit 45,907 tons CO2 emission reduction from the modal shift within the study scope. When considering factors such as distance and voyage density, it provides new quantitative insights into the advantages of water transport over road transport in terms of CO2 emission reduction under different scenarios. Consequently, this study makes new contributions to the quantification of the benefits that an investigated region/city can derive from transport modal shift. It thereby lays the groundwork for effective cost-benefit analysis and policy implementation toward cleaner transportation. • Use of a hybris of energy consumption approach from a new analysis perspective that consider multiple-dimensional MSRW. • Provide a new research method to enable the quantification of the carbon emissions of an entire transport chain in detail. • Provides a solution to the evaluation of the effect of the implementation of transport policies on carbon emissions. • Investigate the MSRW to stimulate cost-benefit analysis and transport policy implementation towards clean transportation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among the various climate change causing agents, transportation alone is responsible for 19.2% of the carbon emissions. By proper implementation of various preventive measures, the impact of transportation on climate change can be drastically reduced. It is also necessary to determine the relationship between the transportation factors responsible for creating environmental degradation and causing climate change and to rank them based on the preventive measures impact to deal with them. In this paper, we have identified the transportation factors that affect climate change and the factors related to its preventive measures based on the 'environment', 'sociology' and 'modernity' elements of Ecological Modernization Theory (EMT). Given the context, this study focusses on development of an assessment framework that combines three techniques: Simple Additive Weighting (SAW), Interpretive Structural Modelling (ISM) and Interpretive Ranking Process (IRP). • We integrate SAW-ISM-IRP approach to understand the impact of transportation on climate change. • We have identified the factors based on Ecological Modernization Theory. • First, SAW has been used to reduce the number of factors in order to apply ISM and IRP easily. • We have collected data from 10 experts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the economic and environmental effects of railways have been well documented, most of these involve economically developed cities and rarely focus on poor and remote counties. Thus, the goal of this paper is to take county-level panel data covering the period 1997–2017 to explore the role of railway opening on carbon emissions in those state-level poverty-stricken (SPS) counties. Compared with SPS counties without opening of railway, those SPS counties with railway opening, especially high-speed railway opening, have achieved significant carbon reduction benefits. The intermediary mechanism reveals that railway opening brings a lot of carbon emissions by promoting economic growth, although they are offset by the low-carbon and environmental protection characteristics of the railway itself. Measures should be taken to avoid environmental damage associated with economic growth brought by railway opening while building and upgrading railway system in SPS counties. • The opening of railways in state-level poverty-stricken counties is regarded as a quasi-natural experiment. • Carbon emission reduction of ordinary-speed railway and high-speed railway is heterogeneous. • The opening of high-speed rail is more conducive to carbon emission reduction. • Emission reduction caused by the railway opening is partially offset by economic growth caused by it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Greenhouse gas emissions and PM2.5 pollution from vehicular exhausts and the consequent negative externalities underline the urgency of investigating low-carbon pathways for the freight sector. This paper undertakes a comprehensive analysis to determine the implications of a modal shift in the freight sector for the environment, energy systems and the economy. Stakeholder consultations are used to develop the qualitative narratives that are further used to set the parameters in energy-economy optimization models for deriving quantitative pathways. Our analysis includes four scenarios: Current Policy (CPS), Road Focused (FROAD), Rail Technology (TRAIL) and Harmonized Multimodal (HMML). The HMML scenario follows a balanced approach harmonizing the twin goals of reducing imported fuels and carbon emissions that can simultaneously assist in achieving development and decarbonization targets. Our results show that the HMML scenario based on the multimodal approach of creating a level playing field for all modes can reduce fossil fuel imports by 87.6% and CO 2 emissions by 96%, relative to CPS in 2050. The HMML scenario also envisages significant macroeconomic benefits – the cost of logistics as a percentage of GDP falls to 11%, and there are cumulative foreign exchange savings of 3.8 trillion USD from 2016 to 2050. However, electrification, the leading technology for the respective decarbonizing modes, will need policies that enhance research and innovation on batteries and infrastructure investments for charging along national and state highways. The main policy insight from our analysis is that multimodal logistics policy needs to be designed in alignment with clean energy-based electrification policy and national rail plans so that uniform rules from the origin govern all modes to the destination of goods transport. • Modelling energy economy to analyse implications of modal shift. • Combining stakeholder consultations with quantitative evaluations. • Multimodal approach achieves development and mitigation goals at the same time. • Over 80% of savings on imports of fossil fuels are possible by 2050 relative to the current policy scenario. • Cumulative foreign exchange savings of 3.8 trillion USD can be achieved from 2016 to 2050. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A vehicle simulation model, CO 2 MPAS supports the introduction of the new WLTP-based certification system for CO 2 emissions in Europe. This paper investigates the possibility to use the underlying simulation methodology to accurately calculate CO 2 emissions over real-world trips, thus to extend the use of the methodology beyond vehicle certification. As a reference, the analysis used measurement data obtained from four vehicles over two different routes under real-world driving conditions. The CO 2 emissions were measured using portable emissions measurement systems. The formal CO 2 MPAS methodology and two modified versions of it that require a reduced number of input data were assessed about their capacity to predict the measured CO 2 emissions. The analysis focused on the accuracy and uncertainty of the three different methodology configurations. As an additional benchmark, the analysis considered the CO 2 emissions estimates obtained from the EMEP/EEA Guidebook methodology used for emissions inventorying in Europe. Results show that the basic CO 2 MPAS configuration demonstrates good performance in predicting CO 2 emissions over on-road tests, reaching a prediction accuracy over an entire test trip of −0,3% and a standard deviation of 3,1%. The modified versions showed slightly higher biases up to 3% and uncertainties (5–7%), but remaining within reasonable limits considering the reduced number of inputs used in each case. Given its ability to predict CO 2 emissions accurately on a local base, CO 2 MPAS could be used for the prediction of instantaneous CO 2 emissions in traffic micro-simulation exercises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews modal choice decisions associated with intermodal freight transportation through decision support models based on the Multi-Criteria Decision-making (MCDM) techniques and modal shift policy assessments based on the Stated Preferences (SP) experiments. The objectives were to determine the relevant decision criteria and their relative significance, to define methods in use, and to identify respective policies that boost intermodality. Google Scholar database and manual search using identified keywords were conducted and references of the relevant articles were double-checked. Consequently, a total of 27 articles consisting of respective 18 and 9 MCDM-based and SP-based articles were reviewed in this study. The results showed that the most commonly used decision criteria were cost, CO 2 emissions, delivery time, safety, reliability, flexibility, and frequency. The cost factor was assigned the highest weight in 22 articles (or 81.4%). Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) technique was implemented in 12 out of 18 MCDM articles (or 66.6%)). Successful application of MCDM methods (both single and integrated) showed the suitability of these methods for intermodal freight modal choice decision-making. The results of SP experiments revealed that cost reduction policies are more effective than policies addressing other factors to increase the demand for intermodal transportation. • We reviewed MCDM-based decision support models and SP-based modal shift policies for intermodal freight transportation. • We investigated different decision criteria, their relative importance, weighting methods, and respective policies. • We found that the AHP method is the most commonly used method among other MCDM techniques. • We found that transport cost assigned the highest weight in the majority of reviewed studies. • We found that cost reduction policies are more effective than other policies for boosting intermodality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

European dieselization, i.e. the sustained increase in the diesel share in the passenger car fleet, is associated with the first EU strategy to reduce CO2 emissions from passenger cars. This paper aims to contribute to the literature on dieselization by looking at EU international trade flows in passenger cars, a perspective seldom found in the literature. Trade data confirm that the bulk of EU diesel trade flows occurs between EU partners, although diesel imports from other, non-EU countries are also significant. Besides, the external competitiveness of the EU car industry is clearly based on petrol cars. The analysis of trade data also reflects previous findings on the increase in car size. On the policy side, the divergence between CO2 from new car registrations and total CO2 emissions from passenger cars during the dieselization era proves that strategies for decarbonization should not rely exclusively on efficiency gains, demand policies are also needed. The dieselization phenomenon warns of the major inertia that road transport policies can have. The analysis of EU car trade also underlines the need to coordinate environmental policy with other relevant countries in the international car market. • EU dieselization can be tracked by looking at car trade flows. • EU dieselization has been related more to imported than to exported vehicles. • Despite dieselization, EU car industry competitiveness is based on petrol cars. • Clean vehicles and lower demand for motoring will be required to make decarbonization happen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change has caused great pressure on the air transport sector. European airlines are subject to a pioneering CO 2 emissions regime. This paper sets out, first, to ascertain whether the European aviation sector has adapted since the launch of the European Union (EU) Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS). Second, based on the answer to the above, we predict the situation of the sector in the medium and long term. The study sample was formed by the top 10 European airlines. The years covered are those since the inclusion of the airline sector in the emissions regime (2012–2019). Clusters were defined by eco-efficiency level using K -means cluster analysis and the Markov model was applied to predict future behaviour. The results have shown, on the one hand, that the larger airlines were the most eco-efficient throughout the study period. On the other hand, companies focused on a low-cost strategy have behaved worse since, although they have also experienced significant improvements in their use of air traffic capacity, even above the large airlines, they have not evolved to a higher level of CO 2 emission efficiency and even getting worse in some cases. However, in the medium and long term, our estimate for the sector is a trend towards minimal eco-efficiency in CO 2 emissions. As governments continue to increase emission limitation requirements, in order not to jeopardise the sustainability of the aviation sector, it is advisable to encourage investments in the development of biofuels and their supply chain, international agreements to optimise flight routes or projects to improve the energy efficiency of new engines. • Eco-efficiency for European airlines in the framework of the EU ETS was analysed. • Larger airlines were found to be more eco-efficient than low-cost airlines. • Medium and long term, a trend towards lower eco-efficiency has been estimated. • More government support is recommended to clearly drive the zero emission strategy. • Greater coherence and coordination between international legal regimes is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the last years, the exponential growth of air traffic has led to an increase in aviation-related negative externalities, raising the issue of sustainable growth in air transport to the forefront of policymaker and national government debates. One of the strategies designed to reverse this trend is to enable modal shift toward greener transport modes where technically possible. Our research quantifies, at a pan-European level, the possible impact of a policy of cancellations of short-medium-haul air routes that are currently effectively served by alternative transport modes, and mainly by high-speed rail. Following recently introduced policy initiatives, we analyze route substitutability based on not only the increase in travel time faced by passengers due to the enforced modal shift, but also the corresponding change in their generalized travel costs. At a macro-European level, our analysis reveals that about 26.5 million (3.02% of intra-European) offered seats may be cancelled and substituted with alternative trips without any significant increase in travel time for passengers. The French domestic market and flag carrier Air France lead the standings both in terms of the number of substitutable offered seats and potential CO 2 savings. Moreover, analyzing the impacts at the regional level, we outline that this policy would preserve disadvantaged regions by placing the burden of reducing emissions from aviation mainly on areas already efficiently served by alternative transport modes. Overall, the replacement of short-medium haul routes would undoubtedly mark a step toward meeting medium-long-term targets of greenhouse gas emission reduction. Eventually, we discussed a number of key issues that policymakers need to address for a successful and not-myopic implementation of the policy. • The paper evaluates intra-European short-medium-haul air routes potentially subject to be substituted. • Route substitutability analyzed by higher travel time/generalized travel cost induced by modal shift. • Routes that might be substituted are mainly domestic. • Potential CO 2 savings and replaceable offered seats are not equally distributed. • We raise a set of key issues that policymakers should consider for successful policy implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The topic of sustainable transportation has been debated among engineers and policymakers. On the one hand the transport sector plays a vital role in accelerating economic activities for economic development, but on the other hand it releases a vast amount of CO 2 , which adversely impacts the natural environment. Therefore, the main aim of this paper is to determine the nexus among transport, economic growth and environmental degradation in the 10 Asian economies with highest CO 2 emission from 1995 to 2017 by using multi-variate panel data analysis. This study includes the panel pool means group and auto-regressive distributed lag model to estimate the long-run relationship between variables. The result from the Dumitrescu and Hurlin (2012) causality test manifests that there is a unidirectional connection between transport and economic growth. Moreover, the result findings observe a unidirectional causality between transport and environmental degradation. Furthermore, the results manifest that there is an endogenous relationship between transport, economic growth and CO 2 emission as well as environmental degradation is mainly influenced by the economic growth and transport sector. The empirical result from this study provided an overview of the attributes of CO 2 emissions from the transport sector. The results not only help to advance the present literature but also can be of particular interest to policymakers. • Assess the linkages between transport, GDP and environmental degradation (ED). • Evaluate transport and GDP effects on the carbon footprints. • Freight transport, URB and EC lead to significant contributions to ED. • Results can help policymakers to adopt future sustainable transport policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Thirty years ago, Adams (1981) depicted a future UK where everyone was a millionaire lorry driver, simply by extrapolating from contemporary official transport growth assumptions. These assumptions underpinned the ‘predict and provide’ approach which then characterised transport planning. Twenty years later, the New Deal for Transport White Paper (1998) abandoned ‘predict and provide’ as unsustainable. This paper argues that the same growth assumptions that Adams took to their logical (absurd) conclusion have re-emerged to define both transport and the drivers of transport demand. While non-aviation transport is supposed to be carbon-neutral by 2050, the implied reductions in emissions rely on an absolute decoupling of transport demand and its drivers for which there is no evidence in current planning. Targets rely on optimistic, narrowly framed technology forecasts and behaviour change assumptions which appear highly unlikely in the present socio-political climate. Moreover, such is the cost of mitigating these tensions between economic growth and other concerns, it is argued that the targeted outcomes of current policy are as undesirable as they are unlikely. The paper concludes by calling for a transport policy which considers mobility in an integrated, holistic fashion, rather than merely as a dimension of economic growth. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This study estimates total, inland, water and air transport net forward, backward and internal carbon linkages of EU's top seven emitters from 1995 to 2011. Moreover, it also reports direct emissions and intensities. Direct emissions of the seven for all four sectors mostly increased with varying proportions, while direct intensities followed a downward trend. Total, inland, water and air net backward emissions were reasonably stable excluding Germany who's total and inland net backward emissions sharply declined during 2000 while water and air emissions increased sharply. Although some nations witnessed a decrease, overall total, inland and air transport net forward emissions increased. While water transport net forward emissions had huge fluxes in the middle, stabilised towards the end. Total, inland, and air transport internal emissions for most of the nations increased over time. However, water transport internal emissions except for the UK were reasonably stable. 'Electricity, Gas and Water Supply' was the top source of German; Polish; Italian; British and Dutch net backward emissions. France and Spain's highest carbon imports were from 'Coke, Refined Petroleum and Nuclear Fuel.' Highest destinations of net forward emissions keep changing over time. The paper also discusses policy implications. Image 1 • Extended modified hypothetical extraction model to time series and cross-regional analysis. • Estimated total, inland, water and air transport carbon linkages of EU's top seven emitters from 1995 to 2011. • Also reported direct emissions and intensities. • On average forward and internal linkages increased while backward linkages marginally decreased. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

City airports cause many environmental concerns on population living in their neighbourhood and several actions are often imposed to airport operators and other involved stakeholders in order to reduce impacts and improve the life quality of neighbouring inhabitants. While some solutions have been widely studied – e.g., green surface accessibility – some others, such as taxi-out procedures, have received less attention. However, taxi-out procedures, which are part of the Landing and Take-Off (LTO) cycle, generate a remarkable amount of the whole airport environmental impact, especially carbon emissions. The goal of this paper is to propose an element-by-element approach that could help stakeholders to adopt targeted solutions. Particularly, the airport activity contributing to the airport carbon impact is split into elementary segments in order to compute the environmental effects produced by each elementary source of pollution. The advantage of this approach is the identification of targeted actions on specific segments, which generates more positive effects for the several involved stakeholders. While the study focuses on taxi-out procedures, the proposed approach is general and can be applied widely to simulate other airport activities that contribute to the airport carbon impacts. • An element-by-element approach is proposed to identify airport taxi-out solutions for CO 2 reduction. • Relevant transport variables, technologies and procedures are identified. • CO 2 and fuel saved for each solution are estimated for a test case. • The test case of Bologna airport shows satisfactory results. • Airport operators may take advantages of the proposed approach to reduce airport CO 2 emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to assess the impact of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) legislation on non-Anne country airlines by using a cost-benefit analysis (CBA), assuming those airlines are treated equally. A financial appraisal model of a case study of Kenya Airways is created to answer two key questions: (1) whether the EU ETS results in a negative impact on airlines located in developing countries or not, and (2) whether new and fuel efficient aircraft can be an effective mitigation option for those airlines and how its impacts could be different compared to other carriers in developed countries serving the same market. The results suggest that the option of keeping the current aircraft is preferred for airlines due to the additional large investment cost, while the fuel efficient aircraft option provides benefits across all stakeholder and related groups such as passengers, the workforce, and the environment. It is found that, compared to airlines in developed countries, the high investment requirement burdens carriers in developing countries to a greater extent due to the higher discount rate and exchange rate volatility. For global market based measures (MBMs), the option to support carriers in developing countries can be a possible measure to retain the equity balance among the parties involved, as it may lower barriers to implement new technology-such as new and fuel efficient aircraft-which mitigates aircraft emissions. Specifically, carbon financing through the revenue from global MBMs’ offset schemes could be used towards this objective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS) included aviation activity in 2012, with free emissions allowances being allocated to each airline. The EU ETS is a market-based measure, which the European Union has introduced for aiming at reducing emissions and meeting the targets specified under the Kyoto Protocol. One of the largest issues is equity. The first multinational emission trading scheme resulted in many regulatory issues and objections by a number of countries and airlines concerning its legality under the Chicago Convention. In addition, under the Kyoto Protocol, ratified countries have different responsibilities and roles based on whether they are Annex I or non-Annex I countries. Hence, this paper attempted to investigate the equity issues by measuring the impact of the EU ETS on an African airline compared to airlines in an Annex I country. The results of case study indicate that there are some differences in terms of equity between Annex I and non-Annex I carriers and their passengers. The instrument is proven to be cost-effective; however, the economic rationality arguments seem to be weak with respect to the volatility in individual behaviour and the vulnerability of non-Annex I carriers which is caused by competition with Annex-I carriers. A transparent distribution of revenue from the EU ETS could be one way of moderating the equity gap between carriers and passengers. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Delivering reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from the aviation sector requires support and action from all tiers of government. There has been considerable focus on the policies that can be implemented at international and national levels; however, sub-national bodies can also play an important and influential role. In order to identify what this role may be, it is important for sub-national governments to have an understanding of the size of their potential emissions responsibility. At present there is no widely accepted methodology for the apportionment of either international or domestic aviation emissions to sub-national levels. This paper assesses a number of existing consumer- and producer-based CO2 apportionment regimes that could be used to allocate the emissions from aviation to regional and other sub-national levels. This is followed by the presentation of a new hybrid consumer–producer apportionment regime applicable to aviation. This new approach is designed to provide an emissions baseline for a region that reflects its share of responsibility for the UK’s aviation emissions as both a producer of emissions and consumer of the services provided by aviation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Transport is a major user of carbon-based fuels, and achievement of the targets set at the Kyoto Protocol and elsewhere means that the EU and national governments must reduce CO2 emissions in all sectors, including transport. This paper reports on a recently completed study for the UK government on the options available to meet a 60% CO2 reduction target by 2030 in the UK transport sector. The study follows a backcasting study approach, developing a business as usual baseline for transport emissions, and two alternative scenarios to 2030. Different policy measures are assessed and assembled into mutually supporting policy packages (PP). Although 2030 seems a long way ahead, action must be taken now if the targets for CO2 reduction are to be met. The achievement of a carbon-efficient transport future, combined with holding travel levels at present levels, is likely to be very difficult. A major transformation in the way transport and urban planning is carried out is required. As transport and urban planners, we need to think very differently in tackling the new environmental and liveability imperative. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]