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• Walking has substantial unrealised potential as a mode for short journeys. • Walking as a Service (WaaS) represents a contributor to realising this potential. • WaaS can resolve the spatial and temporal cognition challenges of walking. • WaaS has a business model founded upon selling geography not mobility. • WaaS could support sustainability and profitability with a Circle of Virtue. Amidst the hype and prospects offered by technological innovation for shaping the future of mobility, it can be easy to overlook the humble and enduring place and potential of walking as a means of movement in our mobility system. Yet walking may already be part of the change taking place, as technological innovation and behaviour come together. This paper considers the potential significance of pedestrian navigation that has been placed in the hands of smartphone users, referring to it as 'Walking as a Service' (WaaS). For individuals physically able to, walking can provide a number of positive attributes including independence, reliability, flexibility, exercise and affordability. Such attributes may compare favourably with other means of transport for shorter journeys. Yet in spite of this it is often not the mode of choice. One of its limitations can be the cognitive challenge – when faced with the unfamiliar - of judging how long a journey could take on foot and determining how to navigate to the destination. Google Maps Navigation now addresses this with what appears to be ever improving attention to usability. Audio-visual assistance 'holds your hand' on your journey and keeps track of how far you have left to go and the estimated time needed. With a focus on the UK, the paper explores the prospects for, and place of, WaaS in the future of mobility, also highlighting an apparent sharp increase in average walking trip rate from 2015 to 2018. It draws out a distinction between the business model of Mobility as a Service (MaaS - which sells access to mobility) and that of WaaS (which sells access to geography and consumers) and puts forward the WaaS Circle of Virtue wherein WaaS is able to support sustainability and profitability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We explore productivity convergence of container seaports using SFA-based Malmquist productivity index. • Norwegian and comparable seaports in the Nordic countries and the UK are examined. • Annual average total productivity is 9.7%, but technical efficiency regressed by −3.2%. • Norwegian seaports are best performers with regard to scale efficiency change. • Convergences are found; seaports with initially lower productivities progressed faster than those with initially higher. • Convergences exist; seaports with initially lower productivities progressed faster than those with initially higher. This paper examines the productivity of Norwegian container seaports and the extent to which the initially less productive seaports are converging/diverging in productivity in relation to the initially more productive seaports. The rationale of the paper is that productivity assessment of Norwegian seaports is scarce in the literature, and studies of convergence/divergence in container seaports are missing in the literature on transportation. The methodology used is the stochastic frontier analysis (SFA)-based Malmquist productivity index (MPI) to assess productivity. To infer productivity convergence/divergence over the years, Beta (Β) and Sigma (Γ) types of convergence/divergence are used. The data used are for the 2002–2014 period and include comparable container seaports from the Nordic countries and the UK to increase the discriminatory power in the analyses and to compare the Norwegian container seaports with their peers. The results attest that (i) there has been annual average total productivity improvement across seaports of approximately 9.7%, (ii) the productivity improvement observed has been due to improvement in pure efficiency change of approximately 11% and scale efficiency improvement of approximately 3.2% and a decrease in technical change of approximately 3.2% annually, (iii) Norwegian seaports are also experiencing productivity improvement and are best performers with regard to scale efficiency change, and (iv) there is an indication of convergence among seaports with respect to all productivity indices, suggesting that seaports with initially lower productivity indices progress faster than those with initially higher indices. A major conclusion is that the overall productivity of seaports has improved, and the productivity growth rates have converged. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the introduction of Electric Vehicles (EVs) into the consumer market, the most important question has been how to persuade people to adopt this product. This is a very challenging mission for the industry and governments due to the nature of the product. It is a revolutionary innovation which means that it imposes major shifts in driving behaviour. The adoption rate however is slowly growing worldwide. Previous studies have shed light on the mechanism in which consumers express willingness to purchase EVs, mainly from the perspective of instrumental attributes (the perceived functional aspects of EVs) and the environmentalism values. This paper includes some behavioural traits to previous prediction models as plausible drivers to purchase EVs: Technology Readiness Index (TRI), and Desire for Unique Consumer Products (DUCP). These traits were synthesised with the aforementioned instrumental attributes and environmentalism values to offer a broad perspective on what drives the purchase intention of EVs. This study was conducted in the UK through intercept survey, with a sample size of 336 individuals. The results suggest that TRI, manifested through innovativeness and insecurity towards technology, is a significant driver of EV purchase intention. In addition, three instrumental factors, namely driving range, convenience, and fuel costs, were found as significant predictors. Unlike previous studies that suggest EVs should be targeted towards environmentalist consumers, this study found weaker support for this claim. DUCP was also not found to be a significant factor, contrary to previous findings. The term EV in this article refers to battery-powered electric vehicle (BEV), which are fully electric vehicles with chargeable batteries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper estimates the negative effects of motorised road traffic on the travel and walking behaviour of local residents in Great Britain and the cost of the wider negative impacts on local economic activity, external effects of motorised transport, social exclusion, neighbourhood social capital, self-rated health, and subjective wellbeing. We use the results of a survey (n = 3038) and models linking the characteristics of roads and pedestrian crossing facilities in each participant's local area, travel and walking behaviour, and the level and monetary value of the wider impacts of travel behaviour. The costs of road traffic borne by local communities were estimated as £31.9 billion per year, i.e. 1.6% of the Gross Domestic Product, or £631 per person. This value varies within the interval £569-£698/person/year, depending on the assumptions made. The highest estimated costs of motorised road traffic are reduced neighbourhood social capital (£236) and reduced subjective wellbeing (£196/person/year). The costs for some population segments, such as London residents, city residents, and people aged 25–34 are higher than the average. The characteristic of roads causing the highest costs is volume of motorised traffic above low (£264/person/year), followed by multiple lanes (£148), traffic speeds above low (£119), and absence of a median strip (£60). By quantifying for the first time, at the national level, the costs of the negative community effects of motor vehicles, this study provides evidence supporting policies to reduce traffic volumes and speeds and reallocate roadspace to pedestrians. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Governments provide policy incentives to increase adoption rates of electric vehicles and achieve sustainability goals. This paper investigates the impact of UK financial purchase incentives on new registrations of electric fleets whilst moderating for change in gross domestic product (GDP). We use a unique dataset of new registrations of electric fleets in the UK for a 20-year period (1999–2019). Our results show that financial purchase incentives positively impact new registrations of electric fleets, and this effect is positively moderated by GDP change. Marginal analysis reveals three categories of adopters that purchase electric fleets at different levels of policy and GDP change: insensitive adopters, standard adopters, and sensitive adopters. Overall, financial incentives may be more effective in fostering the adoption of electric fleets when set to levels that are conditioned on the level of GDP change. In particular, financial purchase incentives are most effective when GDP change and incentives are above their average level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to inform an important policy debate in Europe on how best to open up passenger rail markets to increased competition: and specifically, whether to allow open access train operators alongside franchised (tendered) operators. The paper utilises new British data to analyse the cost side of this debate. Our data is unique in that we have cost data by route level for both the incumbent (corresponding to British franchises) and the open access operators, as opposed to only having cost data on the incumbent at the network level as in other countries. The open access operators are found to have comparable unit costs to franchised operators. This is unexpected considering the significant returns to density that benefit the larger franchised operators. This is subsequently found to be due to lower input prices and an ‘open access business model’ effect that outweigh any density disadvantages. Overall we find that there are negligible cost disadvantages of allowing open access operators to compete with franchised intercity operators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Largest meta-analysis of time-related elasticities; 704 observations from 102 studies. • Empirical examination of the neglected issue of the length of the long run. • Time elasticities found to depend upon many important policy relevant variables. • Meta-analysis results challenge some official elasticity recommendations. • Time-related elasticities can be forecast for range of situations. Far less attention has been paid in review studies to time-related elasticities than price elasticities, and this is partly because there is less evidence. Nonetheless, time elasticities are important parameters for transport planning, forecasting and appraisal. This paper builds upon Wardman (2012) , which then provided the most extensive account of demand elasticities to car, rail and bus time, rail and bus headway, and rail generalised journey time. It is based upon 741 elasticities drawn from 102 British studies published between 1977 and 2020, as opposed to the 427 elasticities from 69 studies published up to 2010 in the previous study. It recovered significant effects for attribute, mode, data used in estimation, distance, journey purpose, the measure of demand response and area type, all of which can be implemented in practical demand forecasting. It was unable to detect variations in elasticities over time, despite extensive testing, but casts doubts on whether elasticities drawn from discrete choice models represent long run effects and on the reliability of elasticities estimated to cross-sectional demand and transfer price data. Whilst we identify long run elasticities, of themselves these are limited if it is not known how long the long run is. Complementary insight is presented on the length of the long run, although this revealed quite significantly that the long run is critically dependent upon the periodicity of the time-series data used in estimation. The estimated meta-model provides credible demand elasticities for the variables covered. These implied elasticities are useful for benchmarking purposes and where no other evidence exists. We regard them to be transferable to similar situations outside of the British context to which they relate, particularly the methodological insights and the incremental elasticity effects. The implied elasticities are in some cases somewhat different to the previous study and also provide challenges to the elasticities recommended by the Department for Transport and the railway industry in Great Britain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the railway sector, there has been much discussion about the costs of delays to passengers and their willingness-to-pay to reduce them. However, the cost of delays in the supply side of transport markets have received far less attention (Van Oort, 2016). This paper fills several gaps in the transport and railway literature by studying the relationship between the costs of railway supply and travel time reliability. First we articulate a generic theoretical framework for the relationship between costs and quality in railways, building on past contributions in other sectors and bringing together diverse and currently disconnected literatures. A key new element of the framework is the explicit introduction of the concepts of 'marginal proactive cost' and 'marginal reactive cost'. Second, through the lens of this framework, we empirically study the relationship between the cost of passenger train operation companies (TOCs) in Great Britain (2011 to 2015) and the reliability of their services, thus producing the first estimates in the literature of the elasticity of train operating company cost with respect to train delays, and in turn marginal cost of reducing delays. We find that for most TOCs improving quality is costly but, for some, quality improvements would be associated with lower costs overall, indicating that some operators are on a sub-optimal portion of the cost-quality curve. The framework and analysis can be used to aid quality related decisions in the railways including the design of incentive regimes; and can also be applied to other cost-quality contexts, in and outside transportation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Future policy should consider both LCA and operating emissions models. • Decline in BEV emissions are dependent on electricity generation mix. • The UK will struggle to meet emission targets if BEVs are introduced in 2030. • Current UK policies miss operating emission targets by 48.9 MtCO 2. • In 2050 for cars, total LCA emissions were 44% higher than operating emissions. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are being integrated into the UK transport network to reduce operating emissions (OEs) as BEVs produce zero emission at point of use. True OEs depend upon fuel source emissions, and 'cradle-to-grave' life cycle emissions. This paper investigates method comparisons of a simple operation emissions model (OPEM) against a life cycle analysis (LCA) (Transport Energy and Air Pollution Model (TEAM-UK)) approach to inform on the UK's target to achieve net zero emissions. Emission comparisons from internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) and BEVs between 2017 and 2050 using TEAM-UK (estimating both OEs and full LCA) and the OPEM (OEs only) across three vehicle scenarios were analysed: (S1) 100% ICEVs, (S2) new ICEVs banned from 2040, and (S3) new ICEVs banned from 2030. Both model outputs varied between scenarios. The OPEM predicted 19% more emissions in S1 (OEs only comparison). Differences between methods in S2 and S3 were minimal (<0.1% and <3% respectively). Comparing the LCA with its own OE estimate indicates OEs remain at approximately 40% of total emissions suggesting they are a strong candidate for monitoring and policy targeting. These comparisons would imply the simpler OE approach is robust for a precautionary approach to assessing changes in OEs for policy implementation impact assessments of ultra-low emission vehicle initiatives. Development of future emission policies should consider both LCA and OPEMs, as although LCAs give more complete results, OPEMs can provide rapid, low data requirement, useful policy guidance. A stringent shift towards earlier BEV adoption is recommended, however, to approach net zero emissions a mode shift away from private cars is required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores cyclists’ experiences of non-injury incidents, arguing that these are important for cycling experience and uptake as well as for injury prevention. It discusses different types of non-injury incident collected in a recent survey of UK cyclists. These are everyday occurrences that in some cases have a substantially negative impact on cycling experiences. This article explores the impact of different incident types on people cycling both immediately and in the future. It analyses what near misses tell us about cyclists’ experience of problems related to road user behaviour and culture, and infrastructural conditions for cycling. The paper explores what cyclists experiencing near misses think might have prevented them. Based on this and on a comparison with common types of injury incidents, summary recommendations are made for policy and future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to model the travel behaviour of socially disadvantaged population segments in the United Kingdom (UK) using the data from the UK National Travel Survey 2002–2010. This was achieved by introducing additional socioeconomic variables into a standard national-level trip end model (TEM) and using purpose-based analysis of the travel behaviours of certain key socially disadvantaged groups. Specifically the paper aims to explore how far the economic and social disadvantages of these individuals can be used to explain the inequalities in their travel behaviours. The models demonstrated important differences in travel behaviours according to household income, presence of children in the household, possession of a driver’s licence and belonging to a vulnerable population group, such as being disabled, non-white or having single parent household status. In the case of household income, there was a non-linear relationship with trip frequency and a linear one with distance travelled. The recent economic austerity measures that have been introduced in the UK and many other European countries have led to major cutbacks in public subsidies for socially necessary transport services, making results such as these increasingly important for transport policy decision-making. The results indicate that the inclusion of additional socioeconomic variables is useful for identifying significant differences in the trip patterns and distances travelled by low-income. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New retail trends show the increasing importance of providing cost efficient deliveries in cities, where congestion and compliance with driving hours regulations should be incorporated into routing software. This paper introduces a large neighbourhood search algorithm that substantially improves the benchmark solutions (in terms of the number of vehicles required, travel distance and duty time) for the vehicle routing problem variant considering time windows, time-dependent travel times and driving hours regulations (EC) 561/2006 that apply to vehicles over 3.5 tons in European cities. Additionally, instances for The Road Transport (Working Time) Regulation 2005 that applies to drivers in the United Kingdom are introduced. The proposed algorithm is also used in scenarios that represent home delivery conditions to evaluate the impacts of the length of time windows, customer density, congestion and regulations in terms of cost and environmental impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Private vehicle travel entails costs to society. However, in a world designed around the automobile, adults who lack access to a vehicle for economic reasons may experience a significant handicap due to constrained mobility and accessibility. This paper examines whether private vehicle access is associated with the quantity and quality of out-of-home activities in which low-income individuals participate. We use pooled data from multiple time use surveys drawn from the Netherlands, Canada, Spain, and the United Kingdom, and employ Cragg two-part hurdle modeling to determine whether there is an association between household vehicle access and participation in twelve out-of-home activity types. As a robustness check, we also estimate multiple discrete continuous extreme value (MDCEV) models. Further, we examine travel time by mode for those with and without vehicles. Finally, we use American Time Use Survey data and fixed-effects panel models to determine the subjective well-being that is associated with our out-of-home activity types. A lack of private vehicle access is associated with significantly less frequent out-of-home activity participation, both in the aggregate and for seven of the twelve individual activities. Moreover, the activities most likely to be foregone are generally associated with high subjective well-being, suggesting that constrained mobility comes with significant emotional costs. We find a greater "activity penalty" for rural residents and for Canadian residents without vehicle access; urbanites without vehicles in the U.K. are the only geographic group which do not exhibit an activity penalty. Finally, respondents with vehicle access spend more total time traveling, although those without private vehicles partially offset spending less time in them with higher use of alternative modes. Overall, the findings suggest that the lack of a private vehicle is deleterious for quality of life, raising troubling questions about inequity possibly arising when people are denied access to vehicles for economic reasons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As mobility as a service (MaaS) continues to evolve with increasing interest throughout many countries, a key driver of its success will be the take up by the community of users seeking an alternative way of accessing individual modal options. Whether a packaging of modal services into a mobility bundle will appeal to the travelling population will depend on what appeal such packages can offer compared to purchasing travel via mode-specific outlets. This paper is one of a growing number exploring the role that everyday travel needs and socio-economic setting might play in defining mobility plans that gather significant appeal from the community. Building on our research in Sydney, Australia, we undertake a stated choice analysis in Tyneside, UK to see the extent to which differences in preferences and possible similarities exist in the demand for different subscription models and willingness to pay for mobility services in the two settings. Barriers to a widespread adoption of MaaS are also analysed, as are the potential impacts of MaaS adoption on public transport use and the way people access public transport services. A decision supporting system was developed to translate the modelling results into a practical and user-friendly tool for MaaS developers/innovators to assess market potential based on customer willingness to pay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Demand Responsive Transport (DRT), covering the first/last mile of a journey, plays a pivotal role in the delivery of a seamless integrated door-to-door service, which is a fundamental requirement for the implementation of Mobility as a Service (MaaS). Business models currently in use do not deliver sustainable and durable DRT in urban areas. This can be minimised using transport modelling tools ahead of the operation phase. However, transport models are not fit for purpose when it comes to model on-demand shared mobility services and the integration of these services in a complex public transport ecosystem. This paper focuses on how to model demand for ride-shared mobility services and how to plan for these services when running in integration with mass transit. An Agent Based Model (ABM), built in the open-source Multi-Agent Transport Simulation (MatSim) platform for Bristol (UK), has used an activity-based approach to model demand for two New Mobility Services (NMS). This was then generated using anonymised and aggregated Mobile phone Network Dataset (MND), both as a trip-based and trip chains dataset to assess the capabilities of MND. Results show that the simulations built using the trip chains MND datasets (722,752 agents generated) lead to better insights in users' travel patterns. An advanced method using additional data sources covering land-use (location of business, services and transport facilities) was used to infer purpose and mode of transport during the multimodal journeys. The output of the ABM predicts demand for two flexible on-demand services, identifying best routes to maximise the number of users served and quantifying the benefits in the integration with public transport services and in modal shift from private cars. This is expected to be useful either for Local Authorities for transport planning purposes, and for operators looking at financially sustainable DRT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Parking management is a strategy that has been extensively employed by authorities and organisations world-wide in an attempt to address traffic-related congestion and associated environmental impacts at a variety of sites and scales. At airports, parking control and pricing regimes are used to generate revenue and manage traffic demand. On the supply side, within the last few years a new trend in unregulated off-site, predominately residential, car parking provision around UK airports has emerged and quickly grown in popularity. Through a survey of three UK-based self-styled ‘parking marketplace’ websites and an in-depth analysis of one, this paper provides an empirical examination of the growing phenomenon of off-site residential car parking provision around the UK’s 25 busiest passenger airports and discusses the potential implications of this niche but growing phenomenon. Data is provided on the supply and the demand for these alternative spaces, as well as their physical location, attributes, and pricing regimes. The empirical findings indicate that, while this currently represents a relatively small proportion of overall airport parking supply it is experiencing rapid growth and may become significant in the future. The paper concludes by contending that airport operators and local authorities need to be cognisant of the existence of, and the challenges and opportunities associated with, alternative parking provision in order to be able to better plan for, and respond to the planning, environmental, and consumer implications it may create. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The value of travel time savings in part depends upon the disutility of the travel time that is saved and partly on the use to which the time saved is put. It has long been recognised that the disutility of the time spent travelling also depends upon a wide range of factors such as the journey length or the effort, comfort and safety associated with travelling. Hence we might expect the value of motorists’ travel time to vary with the traffic conditions as represented by the degree of congestion, in part to reflect the more difficult driving environment when there are more vehicles, but also a higher sense of frustration, similar to that associated with waiting time and contributing to its premium valuation. In this context, and despite the predominance of car travel in developed countries, the empirical evidence specifically relating to car values of travel time tends to fail to distinguish between different types of time according to the degree of congestion. Thus we are often left unclear as to precisely what type of time has been valued. Moreover, when a distinction is made, it tends to be into a simple dichotomy of congested and uncongested traffic. This paper provides new evidence on the variation in the valuation of motorists’ travel time savings across a finer gradation of types of time than has been hitherto attempted. This is obtained from the same Stated Choice exercise conducted in the United Kingdom and the United States. The paper also provides an extensive account of previous research into how congestion impacts on motorists’ values of time. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• WSB is assessed as a travel alternative for two schools in Bradford via focus groups. • A robust thematic analysis identifies the issues underpinning parents' perceptions. • Logistics, safety, trust, health, emotional needs and education are the key themes. • A normative model reflecting and affecting WSB uptake is provided. • School engagement, participant incentives and enhanced road safety help WSBs. Establishing a less car-oriented mobility ethos through initiatives targeting, among others, children's travel to school could be a key for unlocking the potential for a more sustainable future. A Walking School Bus (WSB) is a relatively new and scarcely evaluated commuting mechanism that in theory provides a creative scheme capable of inspiring voluntary travel behaviour change for children and parents. Through a series of in-depth focus group sessions that were conducted in Bradford, UK this article explores the perceptions of parents that are ultimately the decision-makers about how their children go to school. This work improves the understanding of the different challenges and opportunities underpinning travel to school, in general, and WSBs, in particular, by identifying and discussing six thematic areas of critical importance that explain the decision-making behind potential WSB uptake. These are namely: logistics, safety, trust, health and wellbeing, emotional needs and educational opportunities. Finally, the paper provides policy recommendations about how WSB initiatives can become more effective and attractive mobility tools for local communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to psychological theories of environmental affect, the physical environment moderates the walking experience and its psychological wellbeing benefits. The present paper further demonstrates that affective experiences also influence intentions to walk. A study to explore the influence of affective experiences of walking on walking intentions is reported. A sample of adults working or studying in Bristol, UK (n = 384) participated in an experiment involving virtual exposure to one of five environments, with evaluations of their affective experience and of intentions to walk in the setting. A subsample (n = 14) then took part in photo-elicited semi-structured interviews. Multiple regression analyses showed that affective experiences of walking influenced walking intentions. Interview analyses highlighted the role of traffic, city busyness, and poor aesthetics. This is the first empirical study that examines the walking experience and related walking intentions from the pedestrian perspective employing theories of environmental affect. The findings indicate that safety, comfort, and moderate sensory stimulation are crucial elements for the walking experience. Following this, a strategy to promote active mobility in the built environment can be constructed around safety, comfort, and moderate sensory stimulation by targeting the micro elements that prevent them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In the face of a society that exhibits an increasing dependence on motorised mobility, the response of transport policy is one that remains grounded in the pursuit of quicker journey times. Less time spent travelling is assumed to convert ‘unproductive’ time into economically valuable time. This paper explores an alternative perspective on travel time. It seeks to examine the notion that travel time, rather than being wasted, can and does possess a positive utility. This brings into question the extent of assumed economic benefits derived from schemes and policies intended to reduce journey times. Specifically the paper reports on a national mail-back questionnaire survey of 26,221 rail passengers in Great Britain conducted in autumn 2004. The survey examined how passengers used their time on the train, how worthwhile that time use was considered to be and the role of mobile technologies. The results paint a picture of travel time use in which the behaviour and opinions of commuters, business travellers and leisure travellers are compared and contrasted. A substantial if not overwhelming incidence of positive utility of travel time use is revealed, especially for business travel but also for commuting and leisure travel. In light of the survey evidence the paper points to the challenge of understanding the notion of productivity and offers some critical comments concerning the current approach to economic appraisal in Britain. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper examines emerging trends in transport policy in the UK, as identified by the 2004 Transport White Paper and the supporting policy guidance to local transport authorities for addressing social exclusion through local transport provision; accessibility planning. It moves on to identify potential barriers to delivery at the local level and more fundamental challenges, risks and policy tensions. In this context, it critiques UK policies to deliver social equity through transport programmes in light of its Climate Change Agenda and the identified need to significantly reduce traffic levels on UK roads. It identifies the potential synergy between these two policy ambitions, but argues that currently there is a serious policy conflict between these agendas within the UK policy framework. In the light of this conclusion, it offers some key recommendations on the best way forward, which it recommends must be based on the synergistic and integrated delivery of policies for social and environmental equity within the transport sector. It concludes by identifying the key challenges this implies for applied research in this area. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper, focused primarily on UK data and debates, considers the potential significance of travel time use within past, present and future patterns of mobility. In transport scheme appraisal, savings in travel time typically represent a substantial proportion of the benefits of a scheme—benefits used to justify its often enormous financial costs. Such benefits are founded on the assumption that travel time is unproductive, wasted time in-between ‘real’ activities and which should be minimised. Travel demand analysis treats travel time and activity time as separate, albeit acknowledging an interdependency. The paper challenges these approaches by exploring how travel time can be, and is, being used ‘productively’ as activity time, and what enhancements to time use might be emerging in the ‘information age’. Such undermining of the division between activities and travelling, and between activity time and travel time, may have major implications for future levels of mobility, for the modal distribution of travel, for the validity of current transport appraisal methodology and for the analysis of travelling within the information age. These issues are considered. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper describes the evolution over time of policy, structure, competition and regulation of UK airports. Restructuring an airport sector at the time of privatisation will better enable airports to compete. If this is not done, the structure can be revised later, although by then the opposition will be greater. The appropriate form and focus of airport regulation will and should evolve over time, as experience accumulates and as economic and technical opportunities themselves evolve. As competition develops, the extent of airport regulation can with advantage be reduced over time, with a correspondingly increased role for airlines and their customers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In highly motorised countries, some sectors of the population own and use cars despite struggling to afford their running costs, and so may be particularly vulnerable to motor fuel prices increases, whether market-led or policy-driven. This paper proposes a novel, disaggregated approach to investigating vulnerability to such increases at the household level. We propose a set of indicators of ‘car-related economic stress’ (CRES), based on individual household level expenditure data for the UK, to identify which low-income households spend disproportionately on running motor vehicles, and to assess the depth of their economic stress. By subsequently linking the dataset to local fuel price data, we are able to model the disaggregated price elasticities of car fuel demand. This provides us with an indicator of each household’s adaptive capacity to fuel price increases. The findings show that ‘Low Income, High Cost’ households (LIHC) account for 9% of UK households and have distinct socio-demographic characteristics. Interestingly, they are characterised by very low responses to fuel price increases, which may cause them to compromise on other important areas of their household expenditures. Simulations suggest that a 20% increase in fuel prices would substantially increase the depth, but not the incidence of CRES. Overall, the study sheds light on a sector of the population with high levels of vulnerability to fuel price increases, owing to high exposure, high sensitivity and low adaptive capacity. This raises challenges for social, environmental and resilience policy in the transport sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on a review of the European literature about the impacts of having an electrically-assisted bike available to use, together with results from a trial in the UK city of Brighton, where 80 employees were loaned an electrically-assisted bike for a 6–8 week period. In the Brighton trial, three-quarters of those who were loaned an e-bike used them at least once a week. Across the sample as a whole, average usage was in the order of 15–20 miles per week, and was accompanied by an overall reduction in car mileage of 20%. At the end of the trial, 38% participants expected to cycle more in the future, and at least 70% said that they would like to have an e-bike available for use in the future, and would cycle more if this was the case. This is consistent with the results of the European literature which shows that when e-bikes are made available, they get used; that a proportion of e-bike trips typically substitutes for car use; and that many people who take part in trials become interested in future e-bike use, or cycling more generally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy efficiency has become a primary energy policy goal in Europe and many countries and has conditioned the policies towards energy-intensive sectors such as road freight transport. However, energy efficiency improvements can lead to changes in the demand for energy services that offset some of the achieved energy savings in the form of rebound effects. Consequently, forecasts of energy savings can be overstated. This paper analyses the energy efficiency and rebound effects for road freight transport in 15 European countries during the 1992–2012 period. We use a recent methodology to estimate an energy demand function using a stochastic frontier analysis approach and examine the influence of key features of rebound effect in the road freight transport sector. We obtain, on average, a fuel efficiency of 89% and a rebound effect of 4%. Our results indicate that the achieved energy efficiencies are retained to a large extent. We also find, among other results, that the rebound effect is higher in countries with higher fuel efficiency and better quality of logistics. Finally, a simulation analysis shows significant environmental externalities costs even in countries with lower rebound effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The nature of shopping activity is changing in response to innovation in retailing and the growth in online channels. There is a growing interest from transport researchers, policy makers, marketing and retail businesses in understanding the implications of this change. However, existing tools and techniques developed for analysing behaviour in traditional retail environments do not adequately represent emerging complexities resulting from digital innovation. In this paper, we advance existing destination and mode choice models by incorporating online channels in a unified framework. This is a critical extension to existing transport literature on destination choice which largely ignores online activity. Specifically, we develop discrete choice models using elemental store (including both online and in-store) alternatives for joint choice of channel, store, and travel mode. We demonstrate the use of a widely-accepted consumer panel dataset with minor modifications, for the first time in transport research, together with API based data mining tools that offer great potential for enrichment. The analysis focuses on grocery shopping and uses consumer data collected from two selected boroughs in London; results from multinomial logit and nested logit estimations are reported. The extension presented here provides the tools to quantify the effects of increased online shopping on traditional store formats and travel patterns. Our results showed virtual alternatives currently offer an attractive substitute among early adopters for large basket shopping mostly for high income groups. This might suggest a significant reduction in shopping trips to hypermarkets often associated with large basket shopping potentially leading to store closures. Online deliveries mostly draw from driving trips and less so from walking and public transport trips. The present study also confirmed previous findings related to smaller stores and longer travel distances being associated with declining utilities, agglomeration and competition significantly influencing store choice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Past models and tools that support in the decision making process based on Asset Management Principles (AMP) are lacking in terms of the effective outcomes and transparency of the process in the highway maintenance. There is also little research on how to align the decision areas when applying AMP and how to improve the inclusive effectiveness. Hence, the paper focuses on examining the challenges and prospects of applying AMP in a highway maintenance agency or department. An exploratory research method was used through an extensive review of literature and an industry survey. The findings from the literature and case study review were used to design a questionnaire and conduct the survey. The survey results revealed that the AMP are only being implemented ineffectively in maintaining highways, and a strong commitment is required to improve the asset management capability for effective use of the asset data. It is highly recommended that the Highway Agency should issue a guideline for implementing asset management policy and also encourage associate departments to achieve asset management maturity level 3 so that ISO55000 certification can be achieved. The study concludes that there is still substantial work needed within the asset management process, particularly in highway maintenance before its effectiveness can be realised and measured. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main focus of travel behaviour research has been explaining differences in behaviour between individuals (interpersonal variability) with less emphasis given to the variability of behaviour within individuals (intrapersonal variability). The subject of this paper is the variability of transport modes used by individuals in their weekly travel . Our review shows that previous studies have not allowed the full use of different modes in weekly travel to be taken into account, have used categorical variables as simple indicators of modal variability and have only considered a limited set of explanatory indicators in seeking to explain modal variability. In our analysis we use National Travel Survey data for Great Britain. We analyse modal variability with continuous measures of modal variability (Herfindahl–Hirschman Index, the difference in mode share between the primary and secondary mode, the total number of modes used). Taking inspiration from Hägerstrand (1970), we conceive that modal variability is determined by different types of spatial mobility constraints and find that reduced modal variability is predicted for having mobility difficulties, being aged over 60, being non-white, working full-time, living in smaller settlement, lower household income, having regular access to a car, having no public transport pass/season ticket and not owning a bicycle. The findings can support a change in perspective in transport policy from encouraging people to replace the use of one mode with another to encouraging people to make a change to their relative use of different transport modes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the effect of airport slot trading on route-level competition using data on slot trades in the UK. The estimation results suggest that the slot trades among partner carriers contributed to slightly increased competition measured in terms of the number of competitors per route, whereas the slot trades between rival carriers had a negative effect on the number of competitors at the route level. The results suggest that carriers seem to have used the slots obtained from their rivals not to compete with each other but to strengthen their dominance on their existing routes. This behavior is considered to be derived from the bilateral nature of slot trading, which facilitates mutual forbearance among competitors. To cope with the potential anticompetitive effect of mutual forbearance, it would be worthwhile to explore slot-trading schemes that make it harder for carriers to take advantage of multimarket contact as well as alternative methods of primary slot allocation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Universities, like other types of public and private institutions, when located in a city, have both positive and negative impacts on the area where they are situated. On the one hand, they contribute to the prestige of the area; on the other hand, they are large generators/attractors of traffic. The ability to successfully balance the pros and cons of the urban location of these large traffic-generating institutions is crucial for their success and for the livability of the city. In this paper this issue has been analyzed selecting as a representative case the University of Trieste. The aim of the research is to understand: (a) how mode choice decisions are made by the teaching and administrative staff and by the students at the various locations where academic activities take place, and (b) how they would be affected by 8 different transport management policies. It is found that changing the parking regulations (via the annual permit cost, the hourly parking fee, the number of parking spaces and the location of the parking lots) greatly influences mode choice in favor of bus use, especially for teaching and administrative staff and in the suburban locations. The students would be impacted by such changes only if an hourly parking tariff is introduced. The alternative approach of fully subsidizing the bus services would also have a large impact on bus ridership, affecting the mode choice in particular of the teaching staff and in the main university suburban sites. Since the implementation of these bus-favoring policies could face the opposition either of the university staff or of the bus company, two more balanced policy mixes were tested: the first one, increasing parking price and imposing new parking restrictions, would increase bus ridership by 19%; the second one, reducing both bus and parking subsidies, would increase bus ridership by 13%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] This paper aims to prove that marginal passenger costs are sensitive to airline type. [•] Low-cost passengers impose lower costs to the airport than full-service passengers. [•] Charter passengers impose higher costs to the airport than full-service passengers. [•] This result support airlines’ claims for differentiated airport charges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The transition to a low carbon transport world requires a host of demand and supply policies to be developed and deployed. Pricing and taxation of vehicle ownership plays a major role, as it affects purchasing behavior, overall ownership and use of vehicles. There is a lack in robust assessments of the life cycle energy and environmental effects of a number of key car pricing and taxation instruments, including graded purchase taxes, vehicle excise duties and vehicle scrappage incentives. This paper aims to fill this gap by exploring which type of vehicle taxation accelerates fuel, technology and purchasing behavioral transitions the fastest with (i) most tailpipe and life cycle greenhouse gas emissions savings, (ii) potential revenue neutrality for the Treasury and (iii) no adverse effects on car ownership and use. The UK Transport Carbon Model was developed further and used to assess long term scenarios of low carbon fiscal policies and their effects on transport demand, vehicle stock evolution, life cycle greenhouse gas emissions in the UK. The modeling results suggest that policy choice, design and timing can play crucial roles in meeting multiple policy goals. Both CO2 grading and tightening of CO2 limits over time are crucial in achieving the transition to low carbon mobility. Of the policy scenarios investigated here the more ambitious and complex car purchase tax and feebate policies are most effective in accelerating low carbon technology uptake, reducing life cycle greenhouse gas emissions and, if designed carefully, can avoid overburdening consumers with ever more taxation whilst ensuring revenue neutrality. Highly graduated road taxes (or VED) can also be successful in reducing emissions; but while they can provide handy revenue streams to governments that could be recycled in accompanying low carbon measures they are likely to face opposition by the driving population and car lobby groups. Scrappage schemes are found to save little carbon and may even increase emissions on a life cycle basis. The main policy implication of this work is that in order to reduce both direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions from transport governments should focus on designing incentive schemes with strong up-front price signals that reward ‘low carbon’ and penalize ‘high carbon’. Policy instruments should also be subject to early scrutiny of the longer term impacts on government revenue and pay attention to the need for flanking policies to boost these revenues and maintain the marginal cost of driving. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper seeks to develop a deeper understanding of the research on climate change mitigation in transport. We suggest that work to date has focused on the effects of improvements in transport technologies, changes in the price of transport, physical infrastructure provision, behavioural change and alternative institutional arrangements for governing transport systems. In terms of research methodologies, positivist and quantitative analysis prevails, although there are signs of experimentation with non-positivist epistemologies and participatory methods. These particular engagements with climate change mitigation reflect mutually reinforcing tendencies within and beyond the academic transport community. We first draw on a revised version of Thomas Kuhn’s philosophy of science to explore the path dependencies within transport studies, which are at least partly responsible for the predisposition towards quantitative modelling and technology, pricing and infrastructure oriented interventions in transport systems. We then employ the governmentality perspective to examine how transport academics’ engagements with climate change mitigation depend on and align with more general understandings of climate change in UK society and beyond. The analysis makes clear that ecological modernisation and neo-liberal governmentality more generally provide the context for the current focus on and belief in technological, behaviour change, and especially market-based mitigation strategies. While current research trajectories are important and insightful, we believe that a deeper engagement with theoretical insights from the social sciences will produce richer understandings of transport mitigation in transport and briefly outline some of the contributions thinking on socio-technical transitions and practice theories can make. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Numerous travel demand studies have been carried out over the past five decades, many of which produce estimates of the value of travel time. This includes a rich body of largely unpublished evidence, which can provide valuable insights into the impact of variables such as GDP, travel distance, purpose and mode on this critical parameter for transport modelling and appraisal. The work reported in this paper updates and extends our previous meta-analyses of UK values of time () by adding recent studies and widening the range of explanatory variables included. Our current research covers 226 studies carried out between 1960 and 2008, yielding a total of 1749 valuations (a 50% increase relative to our previous work) and making this the largest data set of its kind to the best of our knowledge. This is also the most comprehensive study to date of parameters other than in-vehicle time and includes valuations of walk, wait, headway, congested, free flow, late, departure time shift and search time. Exploratory analysis of the data set provides interesting insights into methodological trends in travel demand modelling. For each valuation, over thirty quantitative and categorical variables were recorded and then included in a multivariate regression model to explain variations in the value of time. A large number of statistically significant effects were obtained from this meta-analysis, some of which are in marked contrast with, or not present in, our previous work. One finding that stands out is that the estimated elasticity of the value of time with respect to GDP per capita is 0.9 and highly significant, a much closer correspondence to the widely used convention of a unit income elasticity over time than we have previously obtained. The ratio between walk and wait time and in-vehicle time was found to be substantially lower than the commonly used value of two. We also found large and significant differences between the results from studies based on different types of Stated Preference survey presentation. Other important effects include variations by mode used, mode valued, travel purpose, attribute type and distance. It is envisaged that the results are of direct relevance in the British context, as inputs to appraisal or for benchmarking, whilst the methodological implications are of broader interest and the results, in terms of time equivalents and variations in values of time, can be transferred to other contexts. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Across the world, there is increasing interest in managing car traffic. One approach developed for addressing the journey to work is known as ‘workplace travel planning’. This paper primarily reports on 20 case studies of UK employers undertaking travel planning, who had cut commuter driving by an average of 18%. It concludes that considerable behavioural change can be achieved in a variety of contexts – but employers usually need an overall strategy that addresses car parking, in addition to improving alternative travel modes. Moreover, a more comprehensive national strategy is needed, if travel planning is to achieve its potential. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Public transport systems have been targets in several terrorist attacks, notably in recent years, resulting in tight security measures worldwide. However, individuals’ privacy and liberty often conflict with efforts towards safety and security, making it difficult to assess the implications of security measures balanced against the costs (e.g., citizens may be stopped, searched and asked to provide personal identification data to authorities without any particular reason). Henceforth, our research question asks, “to what extent would people sacrifice their right to privacy and liberty in exchange for potentially safer and more secure travel?” This paper uses a stated choice experiment to quantify individuals’ trade-offs between privacy and security within a real-life context, namely rail travel in the UK. Using a nationwide sample, the empirical analysis yields the importance of improvements in the security infrastructure and identifies areas of concern with regard to privacy and liberty controlling for travel related factors. Further, trade-offs across different security measures for rail travel are quantified in terms of individuals’ willingness-to-pay extra on top of the average ticket price. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper has two objectives: to examine the volatility of travel behaviour over time and consider the factors explaining this volatility; and to estimate the factors determining car ownership and commuting by car. The analysis is based on observations of individuals and households over a period of up to 11 years obtained from the British Household Panel Survey (BHPS). Changes in car ownership, commuting mode and commuting time over a period of years for the same individuals/households are examined to determine the extent to which these change from year-to-year. This volatility of individual behaviour is a measure of the ease of change or adaptation. If behaviour changes easily, policy measures are likely to have a stronger and more rapid effect than if there is more resistance to change. The changes are “explained” in terms of factors such as moving house, changing job and employment status. The factors determining car ownership and commuting by car are analysed using a dynamic panel-data models. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The objective of this paper is to analyse the factors determining household car travel, and specifically the effects of household income and the prices of cars and motor fuels, and to explore the intertemporal pattern of adjustment. The question of asymmetry in the response to rising and falling income is also addressed. Such asymmetry may be caused by habit or resistance to change or the tendency to acquire habits to consume more easily than to abandon them. The impact of prices, the speed of adjustment and the resistance to change will be important in determining the possibility of influencing travel behaviour and specifically car use. The study utilises repeated cross-section data from the annual UK Family Expenditure Surveys and employs a pseudo-panel methodology. The results are compared with those for car ownership estimated on the basis of similar models. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A substantial amount of research is presently being carried out to understand the complexities involved in modelling the choice of departure time and mode of travel. Many of these models tend to be far too complex and far too data intensive to be of use for application in large scale model forecasting systems, where socio-economic detail is limited and detailed scheduling information is rarely available in the model implementation structure. Therefore, these models generally work on the basis of a set of mutually exclusive time periods, rather than making use of continuous departure time information. Two important questions need to be addressed in the use of such models, namely the specification used for the time periods (in terms of length), and the ordering of the levels of nesting, representing the difference in the sensitivities to shifts in departure time and changes in the mode of travel. This paper aims to provide some answers to these two questions on the basis of an extensive analysis making use of three separate Stated Preference (SP) datasets, collected in the United Kingdom and in the Netherlands. In the analysis, it has proved possible to develop models which allow reasonably sound predictions to be made of these choices. With a few exceptions, the results show higher substitution between alternative time periods than between alternative modes. Furthermore, the results show that the degree of substitution between time periods is reduced when making use of a more coarse specification of the time periods. These results are intended for use by practitioners, and form an important part of the evidence base supporting the UK Department for Transport’s advice for practical UK studies in the WebTAG system. [1] See www.webtag.org.uk. 1 [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In 1996 the UK government introduced the National Cycle Strategy which aimed to double the number of cycling trips by the end of 2002 and double them again by 2012. So far, however, these targets have not been met. The House of Commons ascribes this to ‘a fundamental lack of commitment to cycling on an individual, regional and national level’. This paper addresses the individual level by examining the views of commuters in different stages of change as distinguished by Prochaska’s model [Prochaska, J.O., DiClemente, C.C., 1984. The Transtheoretical Approach: Crossing Traditional Boundaries of Change. Dow Jones/Irwin, Homewood IL]. This model views behaviour change as a process rather than an event. Two studies were conducted amongst university staff and students: a survey study and an action study. The studies showed that as people progress from precontemplation to action their attitudes towards cycling become more positive and their perceptions of various personal and external barriers change. This suggests that different strategies are necessary to move people in different stages of change to action and maintenance. At the moment, it seems that regular cyclists form a very small minority of people who will cycle under most circumstances simply because they like cycling. The majority of people have never contemplated cycling. There is, however, also a group of people who would like to cycle and could be persuaded to cycle under the right circumstances. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The recently developed network-wide real-time signal control strategy TUC has been implemented in three traffic networks with quite different traffic and control infrastructure characteristics: Chania, Greece (23 junctions); Southampton, UK (53 junctions); and Munich, Germany (25 junctions), where it has been compared to the respective resident real-time signal control strategies TASS, SCOOT and BALANCE. After a short outline of TUC, the paper describes the three application networks; the application, demonstration and evaluation conditions; as well as the comparative evaluation results. The main conclusions drawn from this high-effort inter-European undertaking is that TUC is an easy-to-implement, inter-operable, low-cost real-time signal control strategy whose performance, after very limited fine-tuning, proved to be better or, at least, similar to the ones achieved by long-standing strategies that were in most cases very well fine-tuned over the years in the specific networks. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper conducts an international comparative analysis of relationships between car ownership, daily travel and urban form. Using travel diary data for the US and Great Britain, we estimate models of car ownership and daily travel distance. Both a structural model with daily travel conditional upon car ownership and a reduced form model for daily travel, excluding car ownership, are estimated. Model results are similar, and show that differences in travel are explained by (1) differences in demographics between the two countries; (2) lower household income in Great Britain; (3) country specific differences in costs of car ownership and use, transport supply and other factors we have not been able to control. We find that metropolitan size affects travel only in the largest metropolitan areas of the US. Daily travel distance is inversely related to local population density, but the effect is much stronger for the US than Great Britain. We conclude that higher transport costs in Great Britain promote economizing behavior, which in turns leads to more consumption of local goods and services and more use of alternative transport modes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: From a legacy of almost no experience of charging for road use in the UK, except for a small number of tolled estuarial and river crossings and some innovative flirtations with congestion charging trials, such as the Cambridge congestion charging scheme in the mid-1990s, in the new millennia the UK is now at the forefront of research and the deployment of road user charging. With the successful urban congestion charging schemes now in place in the Cities of London and Durham and the planned introduction of HGV-distance based charging in 2008 the UK have embraced the charging for road use, however in addition the Government is also now actively looking at the feasibility of introducing a National road user charging system to fully or partially replace fixed car-tax and fuel-duty. This raises challenges both of a political and technical nature which are discussed in the paper. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]