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Exposure to airborne pollution has substantial adverse health consequences. Governments around the world have paid attention to this problem and started to take action to mitigate its harmful effects. In this paper, we investigate how a change in the consumption tax structure affects car emissions by exploiting exogenous variation from a natural experiment that took place in China. Our results show that this tax policy, which doubled the imposition paid on cars with large engines, reduced the emissions of all the pollutants studied, with the most significant decrease of 11% noted in Particulate Matter and Carbon Monoxide. These results have strong policy implications. By showing the effectiveness of this policy, we uncover the possible benefits of replicating it in different contexts. Further, by using information from COPERT, a totally new approach to evaluate tax and environmental policies, we propose new tools for policymakers to generate rich and detailed data that can be used in different contexts to evaluate policies where data from the population of automobiles is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Explore the self-selection issue from the perspective of households. • Examine how two partners' attitudes affect residential and car ownership decisions. • Husbands' travel attitudes have more influence in these decisions than wives'. • The travel attitudes of two household heads can affect each other's travel behaviors. Abstract Residential self-selection has been acknowledged as a key issue underlining the link between the built environment and travel behavior. Existing studies often implicitly assume that residential choice is a decision of an individual and the influence of intra-household interactions is not considered. In reality, residential choice is a decision often made at the household-level involving more than one household members. Similarly, car ownership is usually a household-level decision incorporating views of different household members. In both cases, the travel related attitudes of more than one household members may play a role in the decision making. In other words, there is an issue concerning residential self-selection (similarly car ownership self-selection): whose self-selection? This paper makes an attempt to probe into this question by examining the self-selection issues concerning residential location choice and car ownership decision from the perspective of households, by incorporating the travel attitudes and travel behaviors of two household heads into an integrated self-selection framework. Data are derived from a household sample survey involving two-day activity-travel diaries conducted in 2016 in Beijing, China. Multivariate modeling results show that household members play different roles in household decisions with travel implications: in general husbands' travel attitudes have relatively more influence in residential choice and car ownership decision than wives'. Nevertheless, wives' travel attitudes have more power than husbands' in explaining the commuting distances of both husbands and wives. Some distinct features of the residential and car ownership self-selections in the Chinese context are also identified and discussed in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the 21st century, China is experiencing rapid economic growth alongside increasing car ownership and its attendant challenges. However, little is known about the determinants of expenditure on car acquisition and household car ownership in China, especially their dynamics as this motorization process has taken place. In this paper, we present household car ownership and expenditure analyses using a unique panel dataset, the China Household Finance Survey (CHFS). We identify three clusters of households with distinct income and expenditure characteristics consistently existing from 2011 to 2017. We also demonstrate distinctive temporal patterns in expenditure in the periods prior to, at-time-of, and following car acquisition for car-purchasing households. We report that most, but not all, determinants we studied have been stable over time. Finally, contrary to contemporary findings in Western countries, being a younger-aged household is positively associated with car ownership, while living in rural areas has a negative association. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• How has TIA adapted to China's context is rarely studied. • China's TIA process enables local planning authorities to secure resources for green transport. • Policy and institutional gaps exists in China's TIA. • China's TIA practice offers insight for other countries. Transport Impact Assessment (TIA) is one of the promising tools used by many city governments around the world to manage the transport impacts of land development, but how it has been implemented in Chinese cities is rarely studied. This paper attempts to fill this knowledge gap by researching cases of TIA in Shenzhen and Zhongshan in China's developed Pearl River Delta. Our research reveals that the TIA process enables local planning authorities to better cope with the traffic externalities stemming from various development projects, and to secure resources in advance for green transport modes. However, the effectiveness of this policy tool still falls short in how governments prioritize green transportation and in implementation details. It can be augmented with clearly defined performance measures for green transport modes and active roles played by relevant stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • The overall performance of rail TOD is better than that of BRTOD in China. • The rail-based TOD index correlates negatively with air quality measured by AQI. • The regular bus coverage and the BRT-based TOD index show no significant impact. Abstract In this paper, we aim to see whether transit-oriented development (TOD) in Chinese cities is associated with better air quality. We first identify 37 Chinese cities with existing urban rail transit and/or bus rapid transit (BRT) systems. For each of these cities we generate performance-based TOD indicators – including measures such as urban area coverage, population coverage, street network density and land use mix within station catchment areas – and construct composite TOD indices for each city using those indicators. We also collect daily air quality index (AQI) data from the Ministry of Environmental Protection of China over the entire year 2014 for 152 cities and calculate annual and seasonal average AQIs for each city. Regression models provide some evidence that rail-based TOD is associated with better air quality, after controlling for meteorological, demographic and economic characteristics. BRT-based TOD shows no significant relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • The increases of commuting CO 2 emissions are several times larger than the urban size, population, and economics' developments. • Metro services reducing commuting CO 2 emissions near the metro stations is not statistically significant, possibly because the proportions of car users near the metro stations are similar to the two cities' average levels, which is caused by their higher household income and the longer travel time using the metro. • In Beijing, there are the smallest commuting CO 2 emissions in the outer suburbs due to job-housing balances, short distance and large percentage of non-motorized mode uses while the largest commuting CO 2 emissions in the inner sprawl suburbs due to car trips with long distance. Abstract To understand the changing relationships between commuting CO 2 emissions (CCE), travel behavior and urban forms, this paper provides a comparative study between the typical Chinese cities of Beijing (more developed) and Xi'an (rapidly developing). Further, the effects of metro services on reducing CCE were explored, and comparative analysis on CCE between the inner sprawling suburbs and outer suburbs was conducted. It was found that: (i) the increases in CCE are several times larger than the increases in urban size, population, and economic developments; (ii) metro services reducing CCE near metro stations is not statistically significant, maybe because the proportions of car users near the metro stations are similar to the two cities' average levels, which is caused by their higher household income and the longer travel time using the metro; (iii) in Beijing, there are smallest CCE in the outer suburbs due to job-housing balances, short distance and large percentage of non-motorized mode uses while largest CCE in the inner sprawl suburbs due to car trips with long distance. These findings indicate that to cope with the rapidly increasing CCE, more attention should be paid to developing strong industry and real-estate simultaneously; the improvement in the feeder bus and public bicycle systems should also be reinforced to reduce the total travel time of metro users; and satellite cities with job-housing balance are greatly needed. The implications will benefit efforts to reduce CCE and mitigate global climate change, and they also provide empirical evidence and reference values for other global cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • The relationship between commuting behaviour and congestion satisfaction are significant. • Semi-parameter model results are robust. • Heterogeneous effects on perceived satisfaction about congestion across social-spatial gradients. Abstract Megacity growth in developing countries suffers from heavy congestion, which undermines satisfaction as experienced by local residents. Drawing on a large scale individual survey in Beijing, this paper explores the social-spatial differentiation of urbanites' satisfaction perceptions about congestion by comparing residents with various motorized commuting modes including car, shuttle bus, and public transit. The results show that shuttle bus commuters are significantly associated with better satisfaction perceptions about congestion than other commuting mode users. We find that perceived wellbeing implications vary with demographic characteristics and transport accessibility characteristics. Findings from this study suggest the importance of considering neighborhood built environment into the design of land use and transport policy aiming to enhance commuters' subjective experiences towards congestion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In view of the climate emergency, it is necessary to model and forecast road transport emissions for implementing more effective climate policy. This paper fills an important research gap by quantifying the challenges, barriers and remedies of achieving road transport emission reduction and air quality improvement in developing countries. It contributes to the debate on top-down and bottom-up approaches to reconcile carbon and other transport related emissions. China and India are chosen as case studies. Using various official statistics and proxy variables, we estimate and compare the road transport carbon emissions of the two countries systematically from 2009 to 2020. Insights from detailed mode-specific estimations of the bottom-up approach are valuable for targeted policies and measures. An analysis of the major components of road transport carbon emissions points to strategies of promoting electric vehicles, reducing transport demand, accelerating modal shift to low-carbon modes, and cleaner electricity to achieve climate policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The existing literature on urban transportation planning in China focuses primarily on large cities and neglects small cities. This paper aims to fill part of the knowledge gap by examining travel mode choice in Changting, a small city that has been experiencing fast spatial expansion and growing transportation problems. Using survey data collected from 1470 respondents on weekdays and weekends, the study investigates the relationship between mode choice and individuals’ socio-economic characteristics, trip characteristics, attitudes, and home and workplace built environments. While more than 35 percent of survey respondents are car owners, walk, bicycle, e-bike, and motorcycle still account for over 85 percent of trips made during peak hours. E-bike and motorcycle are the dominant means of travel on weekdays, but many people shift to walking and cycling on weekends, making non-motorized and semi-motorized travel especially important for non-commuting trips. Results of multinomial logistic regression show that: (1) job-housing balance might exert different effects on mode choice in different types of urban areas; (2) negative attitude towards e-bike and motorcycle is associated with more walking and cycling; and (3) land use diversity of workplace is related to commuting mode choice on weekdays, while land use diversities of both residential and activity places do not significantly affect mode choice on weekends. Our findings imply that planning and design for small cities needs to differentiate land use and transportation strategies in various types of areas, and to launch outreach programs to shift people’s mode choice from motorized travel to walking and cycling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electric vehicles (EVs) have been regarded as one of the most prominent green technologies, touted to help reduce global energy consumption and carbon emissions. China advocates the development of EVs to address the increasing challenges of climate change, urban air pollution and energy security, but consumers’ enthusiasm for adopting EVs remains low. In this paper, we present a concept model that hypothesizes Chinese cultural values as a key to understanding Chinese consumers’ intention to adopt EVs. Based on a nationwide online survey in China, this study explores Chinese consumers’ attitudes toward two types of EVs—battery electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles—by identifying the influence of the human–nature relationship, long-term orientation, face consciousness, and risk attitude, as well as the mediating effect of deontological ethical evaluation in decision-making. The results suggest that public policy and social marketing efforts should pay more attention to the role of cultural values when promoting environmentally sustainable technologies, and importantly, that the promotion efforts should differ for different cultural elements and products with different levels of innovativeness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the built environment–travel connection has been extensively examined in urban settings, evidence from rural and small towns is still scarce. This paper addresses this gap by exploring the influence of the built environment on travel mode choice using national-level survey data from 119 rural towns throughout China. The results show that rural built environment variables significantly influence mode choice, with socioeconomic, regional economic and natural environment factors controlled: at regional level, close proximity to county centres, highways and bus stops tend to reduce car dependence. At local level, small-scale, compact, and mixed land use encourage walking and bus use. The built environment influences mode choices for shopping trips more than commuting trips. The results suggest that spatial planning for land use and transport networks will be effective in shaping greener travel and sustainable transport development in rural areas of China and in developing countries with similar contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Explore the impacts of policy mix characteristics on electric vehicle adoption. • Emphasize the moderating roles of the consistency of policy mixes. • Expand the theory of planned behavior from a policy mix perspective. • Survey data from 927 participants in China. • Managerial implications for policymakers are highlighted. Policy mixes that combine multiple policy instruments together are proposed as methods to accelerate the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs). This paper examines the links among psychological factors, policy mix characteristics, and EV purchase intention based on an extended theory of planned behavior (TPB). The empirical results from a survey in China reveal that the consistency, coherence, and credibility of policy mixes matter greatly in increasing an individual's EV purchase intention, whereas comprehensiveness has a non-significant effect. More importantly, the consistency negatively moderates the effects of consumer attitude, subjective norm, and personal norm on purchase intention, but positively moderates the relationship between perceived behavioral control and purchase intention. This paper makes theoretical contributions by extending the TPB from a policy mix perspective, which provides new knowledge for both policy research and EV adoption literature. The findings also have policy implications for the adoption of EVs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Along with the aging trend of the world population, the status and determinants of the travel behavior of the elderly have been gaining more attention in planning and research. Most of the existing research has focused on the influence of socio-demographics and built environments, while the impact of socio-cultural backgrounds has attracted less attention. Regarding the influence of built environments, previous studies have mainly focused on general elements such as density, and land use mixture, while specifics about how built environments influence the elderly have largely been ignored. This paper, therefore, attempts to investigate how socio-cultural settings, interacting with built environments, affect the travel behavior of the elderly in urban China. Particularly, we will examine the impacts of a set of built environment attributes on daily activity participation and the travel distance of the elderly in Nanjing. Based on quantitative and qualitative data, we found that special social and cultural contexts make the travel pattern of Chinese elderly and the determinants of that pattern different from those of their western counterparts. Specifically, it was found that public transportation accessibility instead of auto transportation accessibility, vegetable markets instead of supermarkets and convenience stores, open spaces and parks along with chess and card rooms instead of gyms and sports centers are more decisive in affecting the travel behavior of the elderly. These findings offer insights for policy making on distributing appropriate public facilities for the elderly in urban areas, especially in new towns in urban China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although operational activities in the aviation sector inevitably bring more emissions, they also reshape the structure of the regional economy, and often upgrade emission-heavy industries to cleaner service sectors. Thus, the overall impact of aviation network development on the region's environmental trajectory is unclear, and calls for rigorous empirical study. Using the data of 283 Chinese prefecture-level cities for the period 2003–2017, this paper proposes and calculates a comprehensive "carbon lock-in" index to measure cities' reliance on emission-heavy sectors and resistance to emission reduction. Then, we calculate cities' air connectivity and network centrality to measure the aviation development, and also examine their direct, indirect, as well as heterogeneous impacts on cities' carbon lock-in. Our empirical results suggest that an improved aviation network development helps alleviate carbon lock-in. Mechanism analysis further reveals that fixed input, industrial structure upgrading, and technological innovation are the three underlying channels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the rapid expansion of the high-speed railway infrastructure in China, conflicts arise between the interests of local citizens living along the planned tracks and the national interests of governmental authorities and project developers. This paper addresses questions of why and how Chinese citizens mobilize for and participate in protests against high-speed railway projects and to what effect. To this end, a comprehensive study was conducted on the decision-making process, public opinions, and protest actions regarding the plans and site choices for the Beijing–Shenyang high-speed railway from 2008 to 2013, combining quantitative and qualitative methods. In general, local residents are supportive of high-speed railway project construction, but they contest the closed decision-making process and the poor design and siting choices for the track by governmental authorities and companies. After four years of resident protests through formal complaints, lobbying, protest demonstrations, organizing alternative opinion polls, and discussions with authorities, citizens were partially successful in changing the siting of the track, adding protective measures (e.g., tunnels and sound screens), and saving green belts. Two conclusions can be drawn from this case study. First, regardless of the growing legal requirements, public participation in major projects in China is far from a standard practice. Final citizen participation is often preceded by serious conflict. Second, with defined good governance boundaries, there is increasing room for public participation in environmental movements, which does influence final decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Electric two-wheelers have become a significant mode of transportation in China in the past decade. Though marketed and publicized by some as zero-emission vehicles, little past research has been done to quantify the environmental impacts of electric two-wheelers in China. This paper quantifies some of the environmental impacts of the production processes and use phase of electric two-wheelers and compares them to the environmental impacts of competing modes, including bicycles, buses, motorcycles and cars. The use phase emissions are quantified geographically with significantly higher emissions in coal rich regions, compared to regions relying more on hydropower. The results show that electric two-wheelers emit several times lower pollution per kilometer than motorcycles and cars, have comparable emission rates to buses and higher emission rates than bicycles. Lead is one pollutant on which electric two-wheelers perform poorly, because of their use of lead acid batteries. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Explore spatial patterns and determinants of on-demand food delivery (ODFD) usage. • Use auxiliary datasets and prior knowledge to downscale ODFD usage to 100-m grids. • ODFD usage largely concentrates in more urbanised areas, especially city centres. • Food accessibility and built environment are critical determinants of ODFD usage. • Several factors' impact magnitudes differ between more and less urbanised areas. On-demand food delivery (ODFD) services now produce many motorised trips in Chinese cities that raises environmental concerns. It is therefore crucial to understand where people use ODFD and what factors influence their usage. This paper explores the spatial patterns and determinants of ODFD usage in Shenzhen, China, focusing on the roles of food accessibility and the built environment. The results show that ODFD usage concentrates in more urbanised areas, especially city centres and sub-centres. Furthermore, more ODFD orders are generated in areas with lower food accessibility by walking and higher food accessibility by cycling, as well as in areas with higher population density, lower point of interest (POI) density, lower intersection density, higher street density, higher land use mix, higher percentage of land used for urban residences and commerce, and lower percentage of land used for rural residences, industries, and green space. These findings provide evidence-based implications for ODFD regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The last decade has witnessed a dramatic increase in the number of motor vehicles in China. Motor vehicles have become an increasingly important contributor to air pollution in major Chinese cities. While research interest in vehicular pollution in China has increased in recent years, there is little research on evaluating monetary costs of this pollution. This paper uses Beijing as a case study to evaluate the magnitudes of air pollution concerning motor vehicles. A monetary estimation of air pollution in regard to motor vehicles is presented on the basis of data for Beijing in 2000. Two methods—willingness-to-pay and human capital methods—are used to analyse the high and low points of estimation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Examines the impact of Uber-type services on PM 2.5 pollution in Chinese cities. • Introducing ride-hailing services leads to a temporary fall in PM 2.5 emissions. • Overall increase in PM2.5 levels from rising vehicle provision and demand. • Provides original insight into ride-hailing pollution in a developing country. The benefits and problems of sharing economy models have been debated heatedly in the literature. In this paper we investigate the introduction of ride-hailing services on pollution in the largest developing economy in the world, China. We use a difference-in-difference approach to longitudinally examine cities that introduced the Didi Chuxing service. Our results suggest that the announcement of the ride-hailing service led to a decrease in PM 2.5 pollution in the month before service launch and in the early months of its introduction. However, this effect is temporary, as the growth in ride-hailing vehicles and a rapid increase in the number of overall trips gives way to an increase in vehicle pollution in this underdeveloped market. We conclude with implications of the research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]