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Urban parks and forests are important providers of cultural ecosystem services (CES) for the majority of the global population. Data from diverse sources are needed to reflect both ecological and social aspects of CES delivery in these areas. Understanding and disentangling this complex relationship is crucial to managing urban green spaces (UGS) in a way that maximizes users' cultural benefits, and does not threaten the ecosystem and its functions. This paper provides a multidimensional analysis of CES delivery in parks and forests located along the urban–peri-urban axis in Warsaw, Poland. We analyzed the content of photographs posted on Instagram to identify which UGS elements attract the attention of users. We also examined whether the pattern of CES delivery was a function of the naturalness and location of the park or forest, and analyzed the factors that influence weekly and seasonal patterns of CES delivery. Although our study focused on areas where natural elements dominate, only around a quarter of photographs featured plants, water, or wild animals. Nature typically appeared as the background, while the foreground was occupied by people and their activities. Consequently, recreational services dominated over aesthetic experience; at the same time, it proved to be very difficult to identify educational services from our dataset. Air temperature, and the color of vegetation resulting from phenological changes were the most important drivers of CES delivery. We found that both the dynamics and character of CES delivery varied depending on the character of the area, and its location. Finally, delivery patterns were similar in semi-wild urban parks and outer city forests. • When visiting urban green areas, people focus on themselves, not on the natural features. • CES delivery patterns in mature urban parks are similar to those observed in outer-city forests. • Air temperature and phenological changes in vegetation are significant drivers of the CES delivery pattern. • The IG photos help to identify recreational and aesthetic CES, but do not serve for educational CES. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Warsaw church gardens are part of small urban green spaces structure and promote ecological benefits. • Church gardens provide the convenient environment for the individual worship and restoration. • Church gardens host both the religious and the liturgical events. • Bigger absolute green space surface and presence of trees favors social events. The subject of the paper are gardens associated with the Roman Catholic parish churches of the Warsaw Archdiocese. Church gardens derive from tradition of former churchyards which are principally characterized as places of burial. With passing years churchyards have lost their function of burial place and were transformed into designed green areas. The church gardens scattered throughout the urban tissue may constitute significant part of urban green spaces. Despite their fairly small size, the church gardens can function as a compliment to larger public green spaces. The research aims to verify how the church gardens of the Warsaw Archdiocese contribute to urban residents' quality of life improvement. The data collection, by means of on-site study, included identification of garden layout, types of vegetation, symbolical elements, furniture and other architectonic elements. To identify each church lot size and the surface covered by green space within respective church lot the orthophotomaps were used. Information on social functions of the gardens was acquired from the parish websites and their profiles in the social media (Facebook), and was supplemented by on-site observations carried out in the gardens. The size of the church gardens is diverse, but the majority of them has at least a small-size green space. The gardens which host social events are larger and have larger green space surface but do not differ with respect to the percentage of the green space surface. Social events take place more frequently in gardens with woody plants. Bigger absolute green space surface and presence of trees favors social events. The results show that Warsaw Archdiocese church gardens constitute important part of small urban green spaces structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]