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We have previously reported the new formulation of polyethylimine (PEI) with gamma polyglutamic acid (γ-PGA) nanoparticle (NP) to have provided Plasmodium yoelii merozoite surface protein-1 (PyMSP-1) plasmid DNA vaccine with enhanced protective cellular and humoral immunity in the lethal mouse malaria model. PyGPI8p-transamidase-related protein (PyTAM) was selected as a possible candidate vaccine antigen by using DNA vaccination screening from 29 GPI anchor and signal sequence motif positive genes picked up using web-based bioinformatics tools; though the observed protection was not complete. Here, we observed augmented protective effect of PyTAM DNA vaccine by using PEI and γ-PGA complex as delivery system. NP-coated PyTAM plasmid DNA immunized mice showed a significant survival rate from lethal P. yoelii challenge infection compared with naked PyTAM plasmid or with NP-coated empty plasmid DNA group. Antigen-specific IgG1 and IgG2b subclass antibody levels, proportion of CD4 and CD8T cells producing IFN-γ in the splenocytes and IL-4, IFN-γ, IL-12 and TNF-α levels in the sera and in the supernatants from ex vivo splenocytes culture were all enhanced by the NP-coated PyTAM DNA vaccine. These data indicates that NP augments PyTAM protective immune response, and this enhancement was associated with increased DC activation and concomitant IL-12 production.

An important aspect in optimizing DNA vaccination is antigen delivery to the site of action. In this way, any alternative delivery system having higher transfection efficiency and eventual superior antibody production needs to be further explored. The novel nanoparticle, pDNA/PEI/γ-PGA complex, is one of a promising delivery system, which is taken up by cells and is shown to have high transfection efficiency. The immunostimulatory effect of this novel nanoparticle (NP) coated plasmid encoding Plasmodium yoelii MSP1-C-terminus was examined. Groups of C57BL/6 mice were immunized either with NP-coated MSP-1 plasmid, naked plasmid or NP-coated blank plasmid, by three different routes of administration; intravenous (i.v.), intraperitoneal (i.p.) and subcutaneous (s.c). Mice were primed and boosted twice at 3-week intervals, then challenged 2 weeks after; and 100%, 100% and 50% mean of survival was observed in immunized mice with coated DNA vaccine by i.p., i.v. and s.c., respectively. Coated DNA vaccine showed significant immunogenicity and elicited protective levels of antigen specific IgG and its subclass antibody, an increased proportion of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells and INF-γ and IL-12 levels in the serum and cultured splenocyte supernatant, as well as INF-γ producing cells in the spleen. We demonstrate that, NP-coated MSP-1 DNA-based vaccine confers protection against lethal P. yoelii challenge in murine model across the various route of administration and may therefore, be considered a promising delivery system for vaccination.

In order to assess a new strategy for DNA vaccine formulation and delivery, plasmid encoding Plasmodium yoelii MSP-1 C-terminal was formulated with newly designed nanoparticle—an anionic ternary complex of polyethylenimine and γ-polyglutamic acid (pVAX-MSP-1/PEI/γ-PGA), and intravenously administered to C57BL/6 mice in four different doses, three times at 3-week interval. Antibody response as determined by ELISA, IFA and Western blot, was dose-dependent and subsequent challenge with 105P. yoelii-infected red blood cells revealed 33–60% survival in repeated experiments at a dose of 80 μg pDNA/mouse. IgG subtypes and cytokine levels in the serum and culture supernatants of stimulated spleen cells were also measured. Antigen-specific IgG response provoked by the DNA vaccination was dominated by IgG1 and IgG2b. Although the elevation of IL-12p40 and IFN-γ was marginal (P ≥ 0.354) in the coated group, interleukin-4 levels were significantly higher (P ≥ 0.013) in the coated group than in the naked or control group, suggesting a predominant Th2-type CD4+ T cell response. These results therefore, overall indicate the possibility of selection and optimization of DNA vaccine formulation for intravenous delivery and may be useful in designing a nanoparticle-coated DNA vaccine that could optimally elicit a desired antibody response for various disease conditions.

Following a genome-wide search for a blood stage malaria DNA-based vaccine using web-based bioinformatic tools, 29 genes from the annotated Plasmodium yoelii genome sequence (www.PlasmoDB.org and www.tigr.org) were identified as encoding GPI-anchored proteins. Target genes were those with orthologues in P. falciparum, containing an N-terminal signal sequence containing hydrophobic amino acid stretch and signal P criteria, a transmembrane-like domain and GPI anchor motif. Focusing on the blood stage, we extracted mRNA from pRBCs, PCR-amplified 22 out of the 29 selected genes, and eventually cloned nine of these into a DNA vaccine plasmid, pVAX 200-DEST. Biojector-mediated delivery of the nine DNA vaccines was conducted using ShimaJET to C57BL/6 mice at a dose of 4 μg/mouse three times at an interval of 3 weeks. Two weeks after the second booster, immunized mice were challenged with P. y. yoelii 17XL-parasitized RBCs and the level of parasitaemia, protection and survival was assessed. Immunization with one gene (PY03470) resulted in 2-4 days of delayed onset and level of parasitaemia and was associated with increased survival compared to non-immunized mice. Antibody production was, however, low following DNA vaccination, as determined by immunofluorescence assay. Recombinant protein from this gene, GPI8p transamidase-related protein (rPyTAM) in PBS or emulsified with GERBU adjuvant was also used to immunize another set of C57BL/6 mice with 10-20 μg/mouse three times at 3-week interval. Higher antibody response was obtained as determined by ELISA with similar protective effects as observed after DNA vaccination.