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Canine idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is believed to result from complex interplay between genetic, microbial, and immunologic factors. Abnormal cell death by apoptosis may result in the persistence of activated intestinal T cells that contribute to mucosal inflammation and clinical severity. To test this hypothesis, we investigated the mucosal expression of pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins in different intestinal compartments and their association with inflammatory indices in dogs with IBD. Apoptosis of lamina propria (LP) T cells in duodenal, ileal, and colonic tissues in control and IBD dogs was analyzed by caspase 3/Bcl-2 immunohistochemistry and TUNEL assays. Densities and distributions of LP caspase 3 and Bcl-2 cells were correlated to histopathologic lesions and the clinical activity index (CIBDAI). Compared to control tissues, IBD dogs had significantly (P0.01) fewer caspase 3 cells in colonic mucosa. Double immunostaining identified the majority of apoptotic cells as TUNEL(+)/caspase 3(+). Within intestinal mucosa of IBD dogs, there were significantly greater numbers of Bcl-2 cells at the apical and basilar villus in the duodenum as compared to the colon and to the apical and basilar villus in the ileum (P0.001 for all comparisons). There were significantly greater numbers of Bcl-2 cells at the apical and basilar villus of the duodenum but significantly fewer numbers of Bcl-2 cells at the apical villus of the ileum in IBD dogs compared with controls (P0.001, P0.001, and P0.02, respectively). There was a significant association between the number of Bcl-2 cells in the duodenum of IBD dogs and the CIBDAI (P0.001 each for mild, moderate and severe clinical IBD). In conclusion, apoptosis of T lymphocytes varies within intestinal compartments of dogs with IBD. Mucosal imbalance of Bcl-2/caspase 3 expression favors T cell resistance to apoptosis which may contribute to T cell accumulation and chronic intestinal inflammation, similar to human IBD.

Trefoil factors (TFF) are small peptides produced by goblet cells, which are crucial for epithelial restitution. In humans with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), TFF expression is up-regulated as part of an unspecific repair mechanism. The goal of this study was to assess TFF gene expression in the gastrointestinal tract from dogs with IBD compared to healthy controls. Preliminary assessment by PCR revealed TFF1 and 3 expression in the small and large intestine, whereas TFF2 was amplified only in the stomach. Subsequent RT-qPCR (with relative quantification against 3 reference genes) on endoscopic duodenal (IBD n = 22, healthy controls n = 18) and colonic (IBD n = 12, controls n = 11) biopsies revealed that TFF1 expression was significantly up-regulated in the duodenum from IBD dogs (Mann–Whitney p = 0.001), whereas TFF3 expression was significantly lower in IBD colon compared to controls (t-test p = 0.018). This study demonstrates evidence for dysregulation of TFF gene expression in canine IBD. Up-regulation of TFF1 could signify ectopic expression as a compensatory repair-mechanism, whereas down-regulation of TFF3 could contribute to defective epithelial barrier function, respectively. Whether this is a cause or consequence of IBD could not be established.

The assessment of in vitro responses of blood-derived cells has traditionally been performed with peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). However, stimulation of whole blood (WB) has advantages: ease of experimental setup, avoidance of blood cell manipulation and lower assay cost and time. WB stimulation is widely used in human research, but only infrequently in small animals. The aim of this study was to compare the response generated in canine WB and PBMCs with Toll-like receptor ligands and probiotic bacteria using TNFα as measured endpoint. WB and PBMCs were derived from a total of 15 healthy dogs. Stimulations were performed with LPS (1 ng ml−1), Pam3CSK4 (100 ng ml−1), flagellin (1 μg ml−1) and Enterococcus faecium (EF; 1 × 107 cfu ml−1). In 4 of the dogs, PBMC numbers were matched to the numbers of PBMCs found in WB. TNFα was detected in supernatants via ELISA. TNFα production from WB was generally higher than from PBMCs (repeated measures ANOVA p < 0.0128). PBMCs produced TNFα inconsistently for all stimulants apart from EF. There was no correlation between results of WB or PBMC stimulation, similar to studies that found that humanWB cytokine production correlates with stimulating monocytes, but not PBMCs. In conclusion, WB stimulation should be considered a valid alternative to PBMC stimulation in the canine system.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a common cause of chronic diarrhoea in dogs. In people, specific cytokine patterns attributed to T cell subsets, especially T helper cell [Th]1, Th17 and regulatory T(reg) cells have emerged in IBD. In contrast, no specific involvement of a distinct T cell subset has been described so far in canine IBD. Thus, the aim of the present study was to assess gene expression of signature cytokines in duodenal tissues from 18 German shepherd dogs with IBD (group 1), 33 dogs of other breeds with IBD (group 2) and 15 control dogs (group 3). Relative quantification of IL-17A, IL-22, IL-10, IFNy and TGFβ was performed. Expression of IL-17A was significantly lower in groups 1 and 2 compared to group 3 (p = 0.014), but no difference in the expression of IL-22 (p = 0.839), IFNγ (p = 0.359), IL-10 (p = 0.085) or TGFβ (p = 0.551) across groups was detected. Thus, no clear evidence for the involvement of Th-17 signature cytokines in canine IBD at the mRNA level could be shown. The contribution of specific T cell subsets to the pathogenesis of canine IBD warrants further investigation.