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Recent studies have demonstrated nuclear export by papillomavirus E1 proteins, but the requisite export sequence(s) for bovine papillomavirus (BPV) E1 were not defined. In this report we identify three functional nuclear export sequences (NES) present in BPV E1, with NES2 being the strongest in reporter assays. Nuclear localization of BPV1 E1 was modulated by over- or under-expression of CRM1, the major cellular exportin, and export was strongly reduced by the CRM1 inhibitor, Leptomycin B, indicating that E1 export occurs primarily through a CRM1-dependent process. Consistent with the in vivo functional results, E1 bound CRM1 in an in vitro pull-down assay. In addition, sumoylated E1 bound CRM1 more effectively than unmodified E1, suggesting that E1 export may be regulated by SUMO modification. Lastly, an E1 NES2 mutant accumulated in the nucleus to a greater extent than wild-type E1, yet was defective for viral origin replication in vivo. However, NES2 exhibited no intrinsic replication defect in an in vitro replication assay, implying that nucleocytoplasmic shuttling may be required to maintain E1 in a replication competent state.

The E1 protein, a papillomavirus (PV)-encoded origin-binding helicase essential for PV DNA replication, is post-translationally modified by sumoylation. As this modification is essential for the nuclear accumulation of the bovine PV E1 (BPV E1), factors modulating the sumoylation of E1 could ultimately alter the outcome of a papillomavirus infection. Therefore, we systematically tested the known sumoylation enhancing factors (E3 SUMO ligases), namely RanBP2 and PIAS family proteins, to determine their ability to bind to E1 and stimulate its sumoylation, using in vitro assays. We found that RanBP2 bound to BPV E1 but failed to bind to the E1 from a human PV (HPV11 E1), and lacked any sumoylation enhancing activity for both BPV E1 and HPV11 E1. In contrast, proteins of the PIAS family (except for PIASy) bound to both BPV E1 and HPV11 E1 and stimulated their sumoylation, with PIASxβ (Miz1) exerting the largest stimulatory effect. The structural integrity of the RING finger domain of the PIAS proteins was required for their E3 SUMO ligase activity on PV E1 sumoylation, but was dispensable for their PV E1 binding activity. Furthermore, the sumoylation enhancing activity exerted by the PIAS proteins on BPV E1 was more pronounced than on HPV11 E1, and appeared to favor SUMO1 versus SUMO2 as the SUMO modifier. Altogether, this study identifies PIAS proteins as possible modulators of PV E1 sumoylation during papillomavirus infections.