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This paper explores whether the sponge city construction implemented in China can restore the hydrological condition of the river basins through runoff depth. The annual runoff depth was calculated based on the volume capture ratio of annual rainfall (VCRAR) and compared with undeveloped and before sponge city construction. The results conclude as follows: the current rainwater source control standard benefits the hydrology recovery in China. But the difference between before sponge city construction and undeveloped is large in 12.9% of the regions. The adjustment recommendations of the VCRAR proposed in this paper are favourable to restoring the river basin hydrology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to better cope with water environmental problems as part of the whole world's climate change, much data are needed. As citizens are more concerned about the safety of the water environment, the role of citizen data in promoting the development of hydrology is a subject of attention. Hydrological data based on smartphones are expected to become a key research direction for new breakthroughs in hydrology. This paper explores the three functions of smartphones in the field of hydrology, summarizes the application advances of smartphones and puts forward the possible future development direction in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The central question this paper asks is: How can we understand the evolution of markets for water pollution allowances? To answer, we have conducted an in-depth study of the development of water pollution allowance markets in Jiaxing, China, which was one of the first cities to experiment with these markets. We have completed a longitudinal analysis and conclude that market design is a continual learning process, with adjustments to solve issues and to respond to external changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the policy principles and strategy models for water resources projects around developing regions of the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, African Development Bank, European Union, United States and Japan. To address conflicts and risks, they adapted different frameworks following a similar logic. A two-track sustainable model – value of isomorphism and order of symbiosis – is then identified, combining strategies of consistency, methodology diffusion, community participation and resource incentives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a static computable general equilibrium model of the Chinese economy with water as an explicit factor of production. This model is used to assess the broad economic impact of a policy based on water demand management, using water tax charges as a policy-setting tool. It suggests that imposing water taxes can redistribute sectoral water use and lead to shifts in production, consumption, value added, and trade patterns. Another important finding is that water taxes imposed on the agricultural sector drive most of the effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With economic development, as well as population growth, the conflict between water supply and demand has become more and more acute in China, and it has been aggravated further by the irrational utilization of water resources: As a result, the deterioration and destruction of the eco-environment have become increasingly serious. In order to effectively protect ecosystems and improve their ecological conditions, many studies on ecological and environmental water requirements (EEWR) have been carried out in China. In this paper, the concept and characteristics of EEWR are addressed, and the main advances of EEWR research and applications in China are summarized in four types of systems including studies on rivers, vegetation, lakes and .wetlands, and groundwater. In conclusion, issues necessary to be studied further in the future are put forward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Yarlung Zangbo/Brahmaputra, shared by China, India, Bhutan and Bangladesh, lacks a comprehensive legal framework. Following an overview of the basin, the paper analyses state and treaty practice through a legal lens, comparing the riparian state positions, based on their approaches to sovereignty. Finding fragmented transboundary water cooperation across the basin, two possible approaches that might help are explored. Taking inspiration from the hydropower projects on parts of the watercourse, and from existing multilateral environmental agreements, it is queried whether future cooperation might be fostered through legal arrangements for joint exploitation, or through joint protection under multilateral environmental agreements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper identifies the vulnerabilities and risks linked with China’s transboundary waters through an analysis of hydrological data and the legal and institutional settings. The risks and vulnerabilities arise in three areas: (1) serious issues of water security arise, both internally and externally, relating to water quantity and water quality; (2) transboundary waters management is hampered by weak capacity across the region; and (3) underdeveloped legal regimes, including procedural requirements for the exchange of information, prior notification and early warning mechanisms, make it difficult to realize effective international transboundary water cooperation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China’s abundant transboundary water resources face new challenges as demands increase, internally and externally. As China seeks new ways to cooperate with its riparian neighbours, more attention is being paid to international water law in the evolving diplomatic practice across the region. China’s (mostly) bilateral transboundary water cooperation is here characterized as ‘responsive diplomacy’. This paper explores China’s state practice in this context and concludes by recommending that it moves from ‘responsive’ towards ‘preventive’ diplomacy. The author offers strategic and policy responses in order to effect this change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China’s rapid development places growing pressure on its water resources, including its considerable transboundary waters. This paper analyses the current situation of China’s transboundary water regimes through a legal analytical framework. The evaluation of treaty and state practice reveals that while China adheres to and follows some fundamental rules of international water law, gaps remain. New trends in China’s state practice and in the field of international law offer interesting opportunities for addressing these shortcomings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For close to a decade China has been implementing ‘eco-compensation’ mechanisms to address water-related ecosystem issues. This paper examines China’s approach to eco-compensation through experience in the Lake Tai watershed. Four typologies of eco-compensation schemes are identified and analysed, primarily through a legal lens. It is concluded that while progress has been made, there is need for improved legal approaches to this complex topic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China’s rapid economic growth has resulted in extensive damage to water resources in rural areas. The Amity Foundation’s studies of six villages in two of China’s poorest provinces, Guizhou and Guangxi, indicate that clean-water projects led to a marked decrease in the incidence of diarrhoea, especially in downstream villages. Such initiatives have strengthened the existing technical and institutional infrastructure in the villages. The paper calls for sustaining such interventions through adequate legislation and policies that improve infrastructure, integrate various departments, regulate diverse water uses and facilitate the involvement of civil society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China shares 40 major transboundary watercourses with 16 countries. This paper surveys China's transboundary water treaty practice and compares it to the core principles of the 1997 UN Watercourses Convention (UNWC). Despite a growing watercourse treaty practice stretching back some 60 years, China's agreements in this field are relatively unsophisticated. The authors conclude that China's transboundary water treaty practice would benefit from some of the guidelines set forth under the UNWC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conventional measures of mainstreaming wetlands biodiversity conservation such as counting relevant regulations and policies produce little insight into the success or failure of mainstreaming or of the potential for impact on wetlands biodiversity of sectoral laws and policies. The authors developed a semi-quantitative process to evaluate the regulatory framework at national and provincial levels that can effectively promote discussions with sectoral ministries on change of legal/regulatory texts that would improve the management of wetlands. The paper outlines the methodology, how the results are interpreted, and some of the key concerns in implementing the methodology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a detailed analysis of the long-term relationship between China's grain output and its use of irrigation water. It shows that over the last 30 years, China has maintained an increase in grain output while irrigation water withdrawal has been decreasing. Irrigation water use was not significantly correlated with grain output due to the greater offsetting effect of prices and cropping area. Although China's agricultural water use will continue to dwindle, there is no reason to expect that water productivity increases cannot continue to keep pace. This is no excuse for complacency, however. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Groundwater overdraft has led to cone of depression formation in Jining City, China. This paper investigates spatial groundwater overdraft severity by an index and Geographic Information System (GIS) method, and impact of artificial recharge on groundwater quality, by a 3-D groundwater flow finite difference numerical model code MODFLOW, and a solute transport model code MT3D. Hydrogeological and anthropogenic factors were evaluated. Groundwater concentration of chloride ions and total hardness (THD) as a result of artificial recharge were evaluated. The hydro-geochemical formation of the aquifer and recharge water quality greatly impact the groundwater quality. The recharge water must be within high groundwater quality standards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China's rivers face major challenges arising from social and economic development, particularly associated with pollution and over-abstraction. Although these issues vary significantly across the country, China has adopted a national, unified approach to manage water resources in a river basin context. This paper assesses the legal and institutional arrangements for river basin management in terms of decentralization and centralization. It considers the appropriate roles for the different levels of government, including providing for participation and integration across these levels. It proposes strengthening institutional development and capacity building in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China, an upstream state and a regional hegemon in the Mekong River Basin, is commonly viewed as unilaterally exploiting water resources, irrespective of downstream states (Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia). This view is derived mainly from China's unilateral exploitation of the upper watershed for hydroelectricity and navigation, raising concerns about negative socio-ecological impacts on the downstream states. However, recent empirical evidence shows that China is gradually getting involved in negotiations and processes with the downstream states, compromising with them little by little. Indications of this policy shift include: (a) its signing agreements for hydrological data exchange, (b) confidence-building with co-riparans in the Dialogue Meeting of the Mekong River Commission, and (c) multinational negotiation with co-riparians in framework of regional institutions. In light of this shift, this article argues that China is not fully enjoying its superior resources or its superior riparian position, contrary to the common view. The aim of this paper is to (1) explain and provide updated information on these negotiation mechanisms, which are attempting to resolve the upstream-downstream dispute in the Mekong River Basin, and (2) produce counterevidence against the Theory of Hegemonic Cooperation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The pollution impacts of different types of non-point source pollution (NSP) were identified on a large scale in the lower Great Lakes of North America in the 1970s, beginning with the eutrophication crisis in these lakes and subsequently expanding to toxic substances and endocrine disrupting substances. Since then, there has developed a large knowledge base on this subject. Especially in the United States, there is now an extensive legislative and administrative framework for non-point pollution management and control. Recently, China has recognized that non-point source pollution is a major contributing factor to water pollution in many parts of China. There has been recent work in several of the large lakes of China where eutrophication is severe. Elsewhere, factory farms contribute large pollutant loads. There are currently limited legal, administrative, or technical frameworks for evaluating or controlling non-point source pollution in China. As part of the reform of governance in China, the State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) is examining the need for a legislative and operational framework to ensure that non-point source pollution is adequately evaluated within the larger context of water pollution control measures and to ensure appropriate cost efficiencies in pollution control investments. The overall status and legal framework for non-point source pollution control in China is examined in this paper. Parallels between China of today and North America of the 1970s are instructive for policy makers in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transjurisdictional water pollution problems are increasing in number and are becoming a significant governance problem in China. A large number of transjurisdictional water pollution disputes that have far-reaching social effects are occurring between provinces and are also frequent between municipalities, counties, towns, and villages. In this paper, several transjurisdictional water pollution cases in China, particularly in the Yellow River Basin, are discussed. The problems and causes for transjurisdictional water pollution are addressed. There are many causes for transjurisdictional water pollution problems although the key reasons are the rapid economic development, the failure of local authorities to enforce the existing laws and to implement administrative decisions, as well as inadequacies in the legal framework. Other factors include poor technology, shortage of funds, the institutional division of jurisdiction and management over water quantity and quality both administratively and legally, the lack of transparency in the decision-making process, insufficient public participation and information disclosure, poor communication, and lack of involvement of stakeholders in basin or sub-basin organizations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transjurisdictional water pollution has been a major problem for Chinese authorities due to legal, institutional, and procedural frameworks that are inadequate to deal with integrated water resources management or for resolving local and inter-provincial disputes. The pollution crisis in 1994 in the Huai River was of such severity that the State Council directly intervened and promulgated new legal and institutional approaches to deal with this transjurisdictional crisis. This included a new regulation with new procedures, new institutional arrangements, and specific measures to deal with polluters. The Huai River example provides a background for how transjurisdictional pollution might be managed elsewhere in China and on the continuing problems in Chinese transjurisdictional pollution management. The example of the Huai River basin demonstrates typical problems of environmental governance in China and illustrates the directions that the Chinese Government is taking to resolve these. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to improve the application efficiency of intelligent monitoring equipment, leakage early warning system and water loss estimation methods under flow monitoring in different water supply areas are explored. Pressure monitoring provides risk alerts regarding unusual activity in the water distribution system in an effort to lessen or prevent catastrophic pipe bursting incidents. The location of leak points can be more accurately identified with the help of hydrophones or leak noise loggers. Furthermore, on the basis of the continuous improvement of hydraulic monitoring, a technical way to predict water quality changes through hydraulic monitoring is being developed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main hindrance to implementation of domestic sewage treatment plant-network integration in China is the separated assessment method. The assessment method of plant-network integration links payment for sewage treatment to incoming pollutants, and payment for maintenance of the pipe network to the concentration of pollutants in incoming water. It helps establish an interactive link between the city and district, and motivates operation and management stakeholder groups. The method contains index system formulation, target value determination, assessment payment plan specification and city-district payment proportion clarification. It provides a solution for the current drainage management by promoting plant-network integration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China's decentralized system explains the reasons for its sub-national inter-jurisdictional collaboration and conflicts in watershed issues. However, few studies have discussed the central government's role as a strategic actor in sub-national hydropolitics. Existing research ignores the reason for central government intervention in inter-jurisdictional collaboration. This study discusses why central government intervention in sub-national inter-jurisdictional collaboration is a strategic choice performed after repeated trade-offs. The significant impediments to collaboration among jurisdictions and the low propensity for self-enforcement are core conditions for intervention. Central government intervention does not occur when inter-jurisdictional collaboration is easy to achieve, even if direct intervention conditions exist. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the recent changes in China's Mekong River policy and investigates the contributing factors. In the past few years, China has shifted from an upstream sovereignty stance to launch a multilateral transboundary water diplomacy initiative in the Mekong River basin through the Lancang-Mekong Cooperation Mechanism. We conclude that China's adoption of water diplomacy in the Mekong River is partially attributable to international activism by the Yunnan provincial government and its associated actors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A Coupled Infrastructure Systems perspective is applied to three cases in north-western China to explain how and why water rights systems and water markets have changed since 1949. The evolution of water rights systems has been shaped by periods of water-supply projects and periods that emphasized regulatory and institutional measures to manage water resources. We argue that water supply infrastructure and water markets have been developed not in sequence but in parallel. The development of water diversion projects and nationwide market-oriented water allocation reform programmes will continue to co-evolve in the future as part of complex coupled infrastructure systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of China's flood protection strategies is to create flood retention areas. This article focuses on how China deals with the infringements of property use rights caused by the creation and use of flood retention areas. It describes the legal framework of flood retention areas, the associated compensation mechanisms and other mechanisms that may be used in the future to offset the adverse consequences of the rights of individuals in flood retention areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyzes China’s Mekong River politics before and after the establishment of the Lancang-Mekong Cooperation (LMC) from a comparative benefit-sharing perspective. China’s pre-LMC approach focused too much on the creation of economic benefits from and beyond the river while neglecting ecological benefits to the river. Moreover, despite the problems this ‘old’ approach caused for China and its downstream neighbours, China’s current LMC strategy seems to essentially replicate its former approach. While sustainable water resources management is identified as a priority area, actual cooperation and benefit sharing in this field remain insufficient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This analysis examines whether the Chinese state has transformed state dam-construction firms engaged abroad into agents of ‘hydro-diplomacy’ to reflect larger diplomatic initiatives to improve relations with neighbouring countries. It concludes that there is little evidence of strengthened direct oversight over Chinese dam-building companies in the region, which remain principally profit-seeking actors. In implementing projects, they prioritize the standards of host countries over the strategic concerns of the Chinese state. This suggests that either the ‘agency costs’ of hydropower firms’ behaviour remain acceptable to Beijing or there are other impediments to policy change. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A significant aspect of China’s power is its position as upstream riparian on many of Asia’s international rivers. China participates in creating and building institutions with riparians of some of these rivers more than others. This article argues that China’s relatively higher level of institutionalized cooperation with Kazakhstan on transboundary water issues is due to the interdependence between the two countries, which facilitates linkages between water issues and a cluster of political, economic, security and strategic issues. China is incentivized to cooperate and accommodates Kazakhstan’s concerns over their shared waters because a reciprocal relationship exists between them. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In response to major water-related challenges, the Chinese government is preparing to significantly expand river restoration efforts. The high level of development in many Chinese river basins requires that this work be undertaken strategically. This article identifies current global challenges to river restoration and presents a framework for strategic river restoration, together with a set of eight ‘golden rules’. The framework and rules were developed specifically to address the Chinese situation, but are relevant elsewhere, particularly for heavily developed and highly contested river basins. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A comparative study of two water users’ associations in the Shiyang River basin, north-west China, shows significantly different understanding and experiences among water stakeholders. Factors other than formal organization appear to be more important in participatory irrigation management. For water users’ associations to play a more significant role in water governance, they have to be context-specific, with better understanding of local perspectives, make strategic use of social capital, and cope with shared and/or conflicting interests among stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Most studies in the field of virtual water trade concentrate either on the global, national or sub-national level, or on the water footprint of individual products. This article assesses the virtual water trade in agricultural products between Germany and China during the period 2008–2010. Germany exported 192 million m3of virtual water to China and imported 801 million m3from China. Through the bilateral trade, Germany saved 69.8 million m3water, while China had a net water loss of 469.4 million m3. Thus, the global water loss amounts to 399.6 million m3. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study aims to evaluate the extent to which the cooperative relationship between China and the downstream countries in the Mekong River basin has evolved in relation to the various benefits shared between these riparian countries from the 1990s to the present. Benefit sharing is deployed as an analytical framework. Larger benefits obtained through cooperation have led China to become more cooperative with the downstream countries, as seen in the Greater Mekong Subregion programme. The establishment of a new form of cooperation in the river basin hinges upon the ability to share the socio-economic, political, and energy security benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although formal law plays an increasing role in water governance in China, the political arena has a large influence upon it. This article seeks to provide a new perspective to understand water governance and what role formal laws play during China’s transition phase through the lens of the ‘Captain of the River’, a newly developed water governance instrument in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

National interest, enhancing the nation’s wealth and welfare, and fostering development are factors cited for the awareness of the need of accurate and detailed topographic maps. These aspects are clearly spelt out in China’s Law No. 75 of 2002. An overview of the status of mapping in China in the context of overall management of its trans-boundary rivers is presented. Public access to these graphics is restricted in this regional context; they are available only to bona fide users. The importance of maps in the context of the trans-boundary water discourse is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article identifies three methods of Chinese investment in transboundary waters: (1) investment in waters upstream from its own state; (2) cooperative investment in a transboundary body of water in a neighbouring state; and (3) cooperative investment in a transboundary body of water which forms the border between two states. On the basis of this introduction, the article explores and analyzes the challenges faced by Chinese investments in transboundary waters and identifies approaches to respond to these challenges, including multilateral dispute settlement mechanisms, data sharing and communication, as well as following the general principles of international law. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapid urban transformation with economic growth often entails shortage of water infrastructure in developing contexts, implying particularly serious health risks in regions where water uncertainty is increasing with climate change. Taking two small towns, one in China and the other in India, as case studies, interview, questionnaire and field surveys were conducted in 2011–2013. It was found that water pollution due to inadequate sanitation infrastructure is a serious health risk, but that implementation of decentralized sanitation systems (potentially better for water resources conservation) is impeded by decision-making structures. The article outlines a geographic information systems–based multi-criteria tool designed to support decision making on alternative water futures questions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors estimate that people in China now use 33.8% of total evapotranspiration and 80.5% of accessible runoff. They also project an increase in accessible runoff by about 14% to 2030 through new dam construction and rehabilitation, while the population is likely to increase to 1.5 billion. Total human appropriation of runoff will accordingly increase from 674 km3 to ca. 820 km3. Appropriation of total renewable fresh water is projected to increase from the present ca. 29% to 31.4%. In addition, climate change is likely to exacerbate water stress in some areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To evaluate the potential adverse effects caused by pollutants in the surface water sources of drinking water in Zhengzhou, concentrations of 10 elements were measured and their health risks assessed. The results show that only some concentrations of iron, manganese and fluorine are higher than the corresponding environmental quality standards. Risk assessments indicate that risk quotients (all values with carcinogenic effects of arsenic, three values of worst-case of lead and one value of worst-case of fluorine) exceed the limits respectively; one hazard index of fluorine is more than 1; and all 95% of cancer-risk values of arsenic and lead are above 1.0E-6. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transjurisdictional water pollution is a major technical and legal problem for the Chinese government and arises from the many problems in the current legal, institutional, and operational framework for water resources and for water environment, planning, and management. The law for pollution and the water law must be seen within the context of the current transition in China from the traditional “rule by law” to “rule of law.” Nevertheless, the common view in China is that each law gives “power” to the State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) for pollution and the Ministry of Water Resources (MWR) for water quantity management. The administrative framework is described, and the role of local government is highlighted as a major reason for failures in enforcing environmental laws. River basin organizations have little administrative power except for flood emergencies and are not mandated to manage river basins in a holistic context. We outline a variety of deficiencies and recommend corrective actions in the Water Pollution Prevention and Control (WPPC) Law. These include such issues as a lack of definition of terminology, an inadequate definition of pollution, a lack of trans-boundary water quality standards, problems of administrative transparency, access to data and information, and several technical issues that cause friction between the two ministries. At the highest level, there is need for a permanent inter-ministerial coordination arrangement to deal with the harmonization of laws, institutional arrangements and operational practices between SEPA and MWR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]