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Abstract Sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata) is an invasive nonnative legume that commonly occurs on sites managed for northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus). Sericea reduces bobwhite habitat availability by outcompeting native plants that provide food and cover. Sericea can be controlled with postemergence herbicides such as glyphosate as well as a mixture of triclopyr with fluroxypyr, but these herbicides do not provide preemergence control. Imazapic has been effective at controlling a limited number of planted sericea seeds, but the efficacy of imazapic at various application rates to control sericea seedbank response following treatment with a postemergence herbicide has not been evaluated. We designed a field experiment to evaluate sericea control and changes in the plant community as related to bobwhite habitat with 2 postemergence herbicides followed by preemergence treatment of imazapic at 3 sites in Tennessee and Alabama, USA, 2018–2022. Specifically, we treated sericea with postemergence broadcast applications of glyphosate or triclopyr with fluroxypyr in 2018 and applied spot treatment with the same herbicides in 2019–2021. We applied imazapic at 4 rates following prescribed fire in 2019 and 2022. We measured coverage of sericea, native forbs, annual grasses, perennial grasses, and bobwhite food plants before treatment in 2018 and after all treatments in 2022. Nearly all postemergence treatments reduced sericea coverage, but imazapic did not increase control compared to postemergence herbicides alone. Perennial grasses used for nesting and bobwhite foraging were maintained following treatments. We recommend managers use either glyphosate or triclopyr with fluroxypyr to control sericea postemergence and consider using a low rate of imazapic to reduce annual grasses if coverage is a problem on the site.

ABSTRACT Reliable and unbiased information is needed for informing management decisions relevant to all animal life stages. Radiomarking is commonly used for adult birds, but this approach is more challenging for galliform chicks. Following preliminary experimentation of multiple attachment methods, we selected 2 radiotransmitter attachment techniques, gluing and suturing, to test on 11‐day‐old northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus; hereafter, bobwhite) chicks in an outdoor aviary environment during 1 May 2013 through 30 Sep 2016. In addition, we field‐tested a novel, modified‐suture technique on 11‐ and 12‐day‐old wild bobwhite chicks. We found that suturing was a superior method of transmitter attachment. Glue‐on attachment of transmitters performed poorly with average retention rates

ABSTRACT Capturing animals is a critical component of many ecological research projects. Factors that increase capture success can save time, money, and improve inference. Even though northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) are intensively studied, little information exists on factors that influence trapping success. Using baited walk‐in funnel traps during 2019, we examined how putting cover over traps, scraping litter and vegetation under traps, distance to nearest cover, overhead cover, date, time, and weather influenced trapping success of northern bobwhites in northeastern Colorado, USA. We found that cover placed over traps, litter scraped away underneath traps, traps placed closer to cover, and windy days resulted in greater trapping success. These results should enable researchers to be more successful capturing bobwhites and result in larger samples and more precise inference in future studies. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.

ABSTRACT Reliable methods for monitoring wildlife populations are paramount to effective conservation and management. There are a variety of available techniques that vary in cost and feasibility. We field‐tested a commercially available acoustic recording device (ARD) in July and August of 2018 with the goal of standardizing the process of surveying northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) populations using acoustic data. We projected bobwhite covey calls from programmable speakers, and analyzed recordings manually and with automatic recognition software. We manually detected 48% of projected covey calls with the furthest detection at 241 m. We developed an automatic classifier using Kaleidoscope Pro (Wildlife Acoustics Inc.), which detected 31% of the manually detected covey calls. The automatic classifier was ineffective, so we used manual analysis to acquire measurements for call strength and background noise at each visible covey call spectrogram signature. Detection probability declined as distance from the ARD increased and background noise increased. However, in our study system, there was no effect of vegetation structure on detection probability. Our results provide a blueprint for evaluating ARDs for application to wildlife monitoring. We believe ARDs can be used to evaluate northern bobwhite occupancy at fine scales and may potentially be useful in estimating autumn densities for setting harvest regulations. We encourage the evaluation of other software recognition programs and the relationship between covey call detection and landscape structure. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.

ABSTRACT Landscape‐scale conservation initiatives have become more common in the past few decades. Many factors led to these increases including a broadening of conservation strategies, technology, and threats to many ecological systems; species’ population declines; and a growing understanding of the need for cooperative conservation. Population and habitat threats and declines often occur on privately owned farms, ranches, and forests, sometimes referred to as ‘working lands,’ which presents a host of challenges and opportunities for conservation. A key challenge of emerging initiatives is funding for conservation. We explore 2 landscape‐scale initiatives that have become loosely linked by the Working Lands for Wildlife partnership. Both have benefited from U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) funding that resulted from an agreement between the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service and the U.S. Department of Interior Fish and Wildlife Service (USDA 2012). We describe a few national cooperative conservation developments to demonstrate their importance to our 2 case studies and the ecosystem of private lands wildlife conservation. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.

ABSTRACT Northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) abundance has declined range‐wide over the long term due to factors such as habitat loss and deterioration. Private land management is critical to bobwhite conservation because most bobwhites occur on private lands, but little research has been conducted regarding how private land managers and landowners make decisions about whether and how to restore northern bobwhite habitat. To begin addressing this deficit, we used a choice‐based conjoint approach to determine how Texas, USA, landowners and land managers (surveyed in November 2017) weigh the importance of northern bobwhite hunting opportunities, costs, and labor when making habitat restoration decisions. We also used a latent class analysis to break respondents into segments based on their valuations of these attributes. The results of our latent class analysis indicate that managers and landowners can be grouped into several segments, and most segments do not place a high value on bobwhite hunting opportunities, but instead are more interested in minimizing out‐of‐pocket costs and labor input. Bobwhite habitat restoration programs yielding cost shares ≥50%, labor inputs at ≤30 days/year, and likely coveys flushed per hunting day >4 broadly appealed to landowners; however, ensuring low labor costs was most important, particularly for pragmatic landowners. This indicates that policies minimizing labor inputs and maximizing cost shares may be preferred over increasing hunting opportunities. Finally, we discuss the management preferences and practices of the segment most interested in maximizing bobwhite hunting opportunities and potential outreach strategies for segments of opportunistic and pragmatic landowners who may be persuaded to manage for bobwhite habitat if they perceived this management as economically viable. © 2019 The Authors. Wildlife Society Bulletin Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

ABSTRACT Northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) populations have been declining in Texas, USA, for nearly 3 decades. Reasons for the decline are unclear; however, a variety of factors have been considered, including pesticides and other environmental contaminants. We assessed potential effects of neonicotinoid insecticides on bobwhites by analyzing liver tissues from specimens collected in 3 selected regions of Texas. Fifty‐seven bobwhites were collected from the South Texas Plains, Rolling Plains, and Gulf Coast Prairies and Marshes regions during autumn 2014 and spring 2015. Neonicotinoid compounds were detected in trace amounts in the livers of 7 quail, including samples from all 3 field sites and during both collecting periods. Signs of testicular degeneration (n = 2) and hepatocellular vacuolation (n = 10) were consistent with known results of neonicotinoid intoxication. Overall, we identified evidence of bobwhite exposure to neonicotinoid insecticides, which correlates with a previous study that suggests that neonicotinoid use may be contributing to quail decline in some ecoregions in Texas, particularly the High Plains, Rolling Plains, Gulf Coast Prairies and Marshes, South Texas Plains, and Edwards Plateau. © 2018 The Wildlife Society.

ABSTRACT Encounter rates may have multifaceted effects on population dynamics, hunter satisfaction, and hunter retention. However, there is currently a lack of knowledge pertaining to those factors affecting small game flush rates. In an effort to address this paucity of information, we investigated factors that may affect flush rates of 3 small game species: ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus; hereafter, grouse), northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus; hereafter, bobwhite), and rabbit (Sylvilagus spp.). From 2003 to 2015, we collected cooperator hunting logs for 3,948 grouse hunts, 19,301 rabbit hunts, and 4,798 bobwhite hunts in Kentucky, USA. Hunting success was defined as the number of grouse, rabbit, or bobwhite coveys flushed by a hunting party. We used an information theoretic approach to model variables that may explain variation in hunting success. The number of hunters within a party explained the greatest amount of variation in hunting success for all species, with a positive relationship between the number of hunters and success. Similarly, for grouse and rabbit, we observed a positive relationship between the number of dogs in a party and hunting success. Weather variables and annual abundance indices were not supported in any competing models explaining hunting success, suggesting a possible scale mismatch related to these broad‐scale data and more localized conditions experienced by hunting parties. Our research indicates that increasing hunting party size through the addition of hunters and dogs was a unifying influence on increasing hunting success (likely through increased hunting corridors) across small game species. This information can be useful for agencies seeking to increase or maintain support for small game hunters in the future. © 2018 The Wildlife Society.

ABSTRACT Relationships between northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) population dynamics and weather are well‐established and managed in the southern and western core of their range. Although a qualitative recognition of effects of winter weather at the northern edge of the northern bobwhite range exists, quantitative evaluations that examine impacts of severe winter weather events on declining northern populations are lacking. We used radiotelemetry to evaluate relationships between daily survival and winter weather in 2 northern populations in Maryland and Ohio, USA. Ninety‐day winter (Dec–Feb) survival varied with total snow accumulation among years and sites, with lowest survival (0.007, SE = 0.007) occurring during greatest snow accumulation and highest survival (0.498, SE = 0.088) during the mildest winter. Snow depths were negatively associated with daily survival in Ohio and Maryland, whereas association with temperature was marginal and differed among sites and years. We used northern bobwhite counts from the North American Breeding Bird Survey (NABBS) to test whether local effects of snow accumulation on winter survival manifest in population reductions up to 5 years following locally extreme snow accumulation events on 128 routes in the northern bobwhite range. Our best‐supported linear mixed model showed snow accumulation during 4 preceding winters was associated with population declines, with declining associations between abundance and snow accumulation over longer time lags. Our NABBS analysis linked local demographic effects from the radiotelemetry study to population‐level changes in abundance at a wide geographic scale, collectively illustrating the capacity for comparatively rare but severe winter weather events to produce a legacy of population change among northern populations. Conservation strategies for these populations should take into account the potential effect of severe winter weather on population stability and seek to employ conservation measures that increase resiliency to severe winter weather events. © 2017 The Wildlife Society.

ABSTRACT Stocking pen‐raised northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) into habitats inhabited by wild bobwhite is a widespread practice, yet no technique other than marking exists to distinguish between these birds when they are harvested or recaptured. We assessed the potential of stable isotope analysis of primary feather tissue to distinguish between wild and pen‐raised bobwhite. We obtained 104 feather samples from 3 game farms and 3 hunters in New Jersey, USA, collected between 1998 and 2006. We analyzed all samples for isotopes of carbon13C/12C, nitrogen15N/14N, sulfur34S/32S, and a preliminary sample for hydrogen2H/1H. Combinations of isotopic ratios of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur yielded unique patterns for the 2 groups, enabling us to form a significant function that discriminated between these groups 100% of the time. The function was influenced most by the isotopic ratios of nitrogen and carbon. We were unable to discriminate between age classes or sex within groups, but could discriminate among farms and between years for the one farm where we had 2 years of samples. In our pilot study, stable isotope analysis of primary feather tissue was a reliable technique for distinguishing wild and pen‐raised bobwhite for 12–14 months following postjuvenal or postnuptial feather molt. Summer stocking, feeding stations, or long‐term survival of pen‐raised birds would reduce the efficacy of this technique, depending upon the definition of a wild population. © 2017 The Wildlife Society.

ABSTRACT Captive rearing and release of birds in the order Galliformes remains a popular management tactic despite low survival rates. We investigated avian predator selection of captive‐reared northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) as a potential driver of their high mortality. We simulated avian predator hunts on a flushing pair of bobwhites during trials conducted from 6 February 2015 to 14 February 2015 in Texas, USA. When presented a choice of a captive‐reared bobwhite or wild bobwhite, a Harris's hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus) pursued a captive‐reared bobwhite in 8 of 10 flight trials. This selective rate, combined with observations from auxiliary research indicate avian predation may be a greater risk for captive‐reared birds than wild birds. The success of captive‐rearing and release efforts may benefit from a better understanding of how to more adequately prepare captive‐reared birds for release. © 2018 The Wildlife Society.

ABSTRACT Increased mortality rates of northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) raised in captivity and stocked into the wild compared with wild bobwhites may be due to differences in antipredatory behaviors. We assessed behavior of wild and pen‐raised bobwhites foraging under risk of predation in a captive situation at the Tennessee Tech University Avian Research Facility, Cookeville, Tennessee, USA, during March–April 2008 and February–March 2009. We hypothesized wild bobwhites were more sensitive to predation risk than pen‐raised bobwhites and evaluated the relative contributions of time allocation, vigilance, and foraging efficiency in avoiding predation among wild and pen‐raised bobwhites. Coveys of 4 bobwhites were presented with 3 food patches at presumed safe, moderately risky, and risky distances from cover in 10‐hr trials. Food consumption, vigilance, time allocation, foraging efficiency, and average realized covey size were measured using video recordings for each patch, and compared between wild and pen‐raised bobwhites and among patch risk levels. Both wild and pen‐raised bobwhites foraged more in safe patches than in riskier patches. Vigilance rates were similar between wild and pen‐raised bobwhites. However, pen‐raised bobwhites spent more time foraging at riskier patches than did wild bobwhites. Wild bobwhites foraged more efficiently than did pen‐raised bobwhites, with foraging efficiency of wild bobwhites increasing in risky patches. Greater foraging efficiency and associated shorter foraging time among wild bobwhites may make them less susceptible to predation than pen‐raised bobwhites. © 2016 The Wildlife Society.

ABSTRACT Trapping of northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) is commonly conducted for research purposes. We investigated the influence of weather, lunar phase, time of day, and season on bobwhite trapping success in the Rolling Plains ecoregion of Texas, USA, from 2009 to 2011. We trapped bobwhites in autumn (Oct–Nov) and spring (Feb–Mar) using walk‐in funnel traps baited with sorghum. We used a negative binomial regression to examine effects of temperature, humidity, wind speed, lunar phase, time of day, season, the number of traps set, and year on the number of bobwhites captured per trapping session. More bobwhites were trapped during the spring, in the evenings, and when temperatures were cooler. There was also some evidence for an influence of lunar phase on the number of bobwhites captured with greater counts during the new moon and third quarter. These variables may be important to consider for maximizing catch‐per‐unit‐effort, when using trapping data to estimate relative abundance, or when conducting mark–recapture studies. © 2016 The Wildlife Society.

ABSTRACT Long‐term data from the Breeding Bird Survey and Christmas Bird Count indicate that northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus; hereafter, bobwhite) populations have declined since 1961 in all but 1 of the 31 states they occupy within the United States. This long‐term population decline is largely due to habitat loss. However, several other factors, including parasitism, have been considered as possible contributors or even primary causes of the bobwhite population decline. We review recent research on the helminths that infect bobwhites, particularly in Texas, and compare the bobwhite–helminth system to other galliform–helminth systems. We hypothesize that helminths do not affect bobwhite populations under favorable habitat conditions and that any observed localized population impacts may be proximate causes of the bobwhite population decline rather than ultimate causes of the bobwhite population decline. Helminth survey data provide insufficient evidence of negative effects on individual bobwhites or on their populations. Although surveys provide important data and should continue, experimental studies are the best way to identify the impact that helminths may have on bobwhites at the population level. © 2016 The Wildlife Society.

ABSTRACT Captive‐rearing and release programs have been used to augment populations of ring‐necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), and other gamebirds to provide additional hunting opportunities. However, many question the efficacy of the rear‐and‐release technique to increase huntable gamebird populations. The Surrogator® (hereafter, surrogator) is a captive‐rearing system purported to establish huntable gamebird populations within a property. Little research has been conducted to inform land managers and sportsmen and sportswomen about the effectiveness of this system. We evaluated the use of the surrogator for ring‐necked pheasants and northern bobwhites from May to October 2009 and 2010 in Kiowa County, Kansas, USA. The 4‐week in‐surrogator survival rates for pheasant chicks were 85% ± 5% (SE) in 2009 (n = 840) and 79% ± 8% in 2010 (n = 420). The 5‐week in‐surrogator survival of bobwhite chicks was 78% ± 12% (n = 765) in 2009 and 79% ± 3% in 2010 (n = 783). Released pheasant chicks had an overall survival rate of 8% ± 6% (n = 58) over 12 weeks. Eight‐week postrelease survival for bobwhites was 35% ± 5% (n = 59). Postrelease survival of pheasants or bobwhites was not appreciably greater than conventional rear‐and‐release programs, suggesting that population establishment with surrogator birds may be difficult. Although 1,150 pheasants and 1,105 bobwhites were released, only 5.5% and 7.2% of bands were returned from harvested pheasants and bobwhites, respectively. The surrogator may not be effective for establishing or re‐establishing pheasant and bobwhite populations, but it may be an effective tool to supplement existing gamebird populations to enhance hunting opportunities. © 2016 The Wildlife Society.

ABSTRACT We determined autumn and winter food habits of hunter‐harvested northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus; n = 388) over 11 years (1998–2009) in a matrix of restored shortleaf pine–bluestem (Pinus echinata–Andropogon–Schizachyrium), and unthinned and unburned stands on the Ouachita National Forest, Arkansas, USA. Restoration treatments involved thinning of midstory hardwoods and midstory and co‐dominant shortleaf pine in a process called wildlife stand improvement (WSI). The WSI was followed by February or March prescribed burns at 3‐year intervals. Species richness of individual bobwhite crops ranged from 0 to 16 and differed among years but not months. Shortleaf pine seed, post oak (Quercus stellata) acorns, and various legume seed (Lespedeza spp., Desmodium spp.) occurred most often of 94 food categories/items (≥110 species) found in quail crops. Shortleaf pine seed had among the highest gross energy (4.58 ± 0.2 kcal/g), fat (21.8 ± 0.6%), and crude protein (31.2 ± 0.5%) of food items analyzed. Green vegetation occurred in 43.3% of all crops, the greatest of any food category, and also was high in crude protein (28.7%), but the lowest in gross energy (3.43 kcal/g). Invertebrates occurred in 35.6% of crops, but were high‐ranked items in autumn and winter diets, particularly Orthopterans (12.4%), which were greatest in crude protein (64.3%). Average dry mass of crop contents was 1.38 g ± 0.16 g. Dry mass of woody plant seeds comprised most of the diet, averaging 0.86 g ± 0.17 g/crop. Bobwhites used a wide variety of plant and invertebrate food items that require or are benefited by open canopy conditions and frequent disturbance such as prescribed fire. © 2016 The Wildlife Society.

ABSTRACT Declines in northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) populations have led landowners in Texas, USA, to develop various management strategies to combat waning abundance. One common management strategy is to provide supplemental feed to bobwhites, despite the paucity of information regarding the effects of supplemental feed on bobwhite space use and survival. We examined survival and home range of bobwhites using the technique of spreading supplemental feed into roadside vegetation in the Texas Rolling Plains. The study sites were divided into 8 (404.6‐ha) units randomly designated as treatment (feed provided) or control (feed withheld). Treatment and control units were rotated during the second field season to minimize potential habitat bias. Treatment units received approximately 69.1 kg/km of milo (Sorghum bicolor) twice per month. We captured and radiomarked 197 female bobwhites (82 treatment [48: 2010–2011; 34: 2011–2012], 115 control [64: 2010–2011; 51: 2011–2012]) from autumn 2010 to spring 2012. Females were monitored for location and survival with radiotelemetry 3–4 times/week. Average home‐range size was similar on control and treatment units (47.6 ha [8.7 SE] and 46.2 ha [10.3 SE], respectively). We estimated survival rate with the nest survival model in Program MARK. We observed an increase in survival rate on treatment units compared with control units, regardless of year or environmental conditions. Our results suggest that distributing supplemental feed into roadside vegetation positively influences bobwhite survival with no reduction in home range size. © 2015 The Wildlife Society.

ABSTRACT Northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) represent a valuable resource for upland game‐bird hunters and the rural economies they support; however, bobwhite populations are declining across the United States. As ground‐nesting birds, bobwhites are highly susceptible to mammalian predation during the breeding season. We placed global positioning collars on 6 coyotes (Canis latrans), 4 bobcats (Lynx rufus), and 11 raccoons (Procyon lotor) in Texas, USA, during the nesting season of bobwhites (April–August of 2009–2011) to assess their habitat selection and use, as well as determine the relative frequency with which they may encounter bobwhite nests. Overall, nightly encounter rate of predators with known bobwhite nest sites was low. Coyotes encountered nest sites 3 times more frequently than male raccoons and 7 times more frequently than bobcats. Female raccoons did not come within 50 m of any nest locations. The higher encounter rate of coyotes with bobwhite nest sites was associated with the similarity of habitat preference of coyotes and bobwhites for grasslands and grass–shrub habitats and the wide‐ranging nocturnal paths of coyotes. Bobcats and raccoons had shorter nightly paths and mainly used habitats providing a greater degree of cover than is typically suitable for nesting bobwhites. Male raccoons were more mobile than females and made greater use of the grass–shrub habitat, and thus were more likely to encounter quail nests. Despite having lower individual encounter rates with bobwhite nest sites than did coyotes, male raccoons remain important predators of quail nests because they have the behavioral ability to attain greater population densities than those of the more territorial coyotes and bobcats. © 2014 The Wildlife Society.

ABSTRACT Predation risk has a profound influence on prey behavior and habitat use. The Rio Grande Plains ecoregion of Texas, USA, provides a unique opportunity to investigate changes in prey behavior because the ecoregion experiences a high influx of raptors every year during autumn migration. We used an 8‐year data set (2000–2008) of radiocollared northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) and raptor abundance to test the hypothesis that bobwhites responded to increased raptor abundance via changes in woody‐cover use at the home‐range scale. Bobwhite survival was negatively correlated with raptor abundance, with red‐tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), and northern harriers (Circus cyaneus) accounting for 51% of the variability in bobwhite survival (P

Abstract Habitat fragmentation is considered a contributing factor to declining populations of northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus). Some population strongholds exist within large expanses of habitat; however, many regions of the species' range have become fragmented and populations therein have become nearly extirpated. Our objectives were to determine whether combined habitat management and bobwhite translocation could restore bobwhite populations in habitat patches within a fragmented landscape. We translocated 550 bobwhites to 2 sites (≥660 ha; Caldwell and Fayette counties) in the Post Oak Savannah ecoregion of Texas, USA, during 2004–2006. We compared survival, home‐range size, and reproduction between translocated bobwhites in a fragmented landscape and resident bobwhites in contiguous habitat (Brooks County). Pooled over the 3‐year study, translocated bobwhites had lower survival (6 Apr–15 Aug, 2004–2006; Ŝ = 0.35; n = 165 bobwhites) than did resident bobwhites (Ŝ = 0.56; n = 224 bobwhites; P

Abstract The northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) decline has become a cause célébre of wildlife conservation during the past 2 decades. With few exceptions, current broad‐scale population trends show ongoing erosion in bobwhite numbers across most of the species' range. The causes of these declines are ultimate factors exacerbated by certain proximate factors. Ultimate factors are centered on the loss and fragmentation of habitat. Proximate factors such as predation and disease also may be present. The impacts of some factors, such as climate change, remain unknown but may influence bobwhite population trajectories over the long term. Progress has occurred in bobwhite conservation efforts since 1990 and has culminated in the formation of the National Bobwhite Technical Committee and the publication of the Northern Bobwhite Conservation Initiative. The vast majority of prevailing agricultural, forestry, and to some extent rangeland land uses in the United States continue as threats to bobwhite population persistence in the foreseeable future. Land‐use patterns that once sustained widespread abundance of northern bobwhite during the early 20th century clearly are past and likely never to return. Landscape features that sustain and elevate northern bobwhite populations will only be maintained as a function of purposeful management actions directed at saving and creating usable space. © The Wildlife Society, 2012

Abstract Distance sampling during aerial surveys has been used extensively to estimate the density of many wildlife species. However, practical issues arise when using distance sampling during aerial surveys, such as obtaining accurate perpendicular distances. We assembled a computerized, electronic system to collect distance‐sampling data (e.g., transect length, detection location, and perpendicular distance) during aerial surveys. We tested the accuracy of the system in a controlled trial and a mock survey. We also evaluated the electronic system during field surveys of northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) conducted in the Rio Grande Plains and Rolling Plains ecoregions of Texas, USA, during December 2007–2008. For comparison, we evaluated the accuracy of visual estimation of distance during a mock survey. A strong linear relationship existed between estimated and actual distances for the controlled trial (r2 = 0.99) and mock survey (r2 = 0.98) using the electronic system. Perpendicular‐distance error (i.e., absolute difference between estimated distance and actual distance) for the electronic system was low during the controlled trial (1.4 ± 0.4 m; ${ar {x}}$ ± SE) and mock survey (3.0 ± 0.5 m) but not during the visual estimation of distance (10 ± 1.5 m). Estimates of bobwhite density obtained using the electronic system exhibited reasonable precision for each ecoregion during both years (CV

Abstract Providing supplemental feed is a common practice for the management of northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) and scaled quail (Callipepla squamata). The ecological efficacy and economic efficiency of a feeding program for quail can be evaluated using numerous metrics, including visitation rates by target and non‐target species. We quantified species visitation rates seasonally at free‐choice quail feeders with motion‐sensing cameras at 4 sites in West Texas, USA. Feeders were monitored from autumn 2002 to summer 2003 using both an active‐infrared sensing camera system (TrailMaster 1500®; Goodson & Associates, Inc., Lenexa, KS) and a passive infrared video system (TrophyView®; Wildlife Surveillance Systems, Inc., Kerens, TX). Our camera systems recorded 14 mammal and 18 avian species among 6,558 events observed from 490 days of feeder surveillance. Collectively, northern bobwhite and scaled quail accounted for only 7.3% and 11.3% of all recorded species visitations for the TrophyView and TrailMaster camera systems, respectively. Raccoons (Procyon lotor, 43.2%) and nongame birds (32.5%) comprised the majority of all recorded visitations. Although feeder visitation rates do not necessarily equate to feed consumption, we conclude that the vast majority of the feed in this study was consumed by non‐target species and most notably raccoons. High visitation rates by raccoons at feeders suggest supplemental feeding programs for quail could facilitate targeted removal of a common feed competitor (and potential predator of quail nests) and perhaps improve efficacy of feeding efforts. Managers should consider both direct and indirect effects of providing supplemental feeding efforts. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.

Abstract Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) plantations are established using various treatments to manage competing vegetation and increase pine production. Although young pine plantations historically supported early successional vegetation communities that contained abundant wildlife forage, increasing intensity of stand‐establishment treatments, particularly herbicides, has caused concern regarding potential effects on composition, availability, and quality of wildlife forage within young pine plantations. Few long‐term studies have described relationships between intensity of site preparation and effects on important forage plants for 2 economically and ecologically important game species: white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus). Therefore, we examined effects of 6 treatments of increasing stand‐establishment intensity via combinations of mechanical and chemical site preparation with herbaceous weed‐control on deer and bobwhite food plants from 1 year to 8 years after site preparation in loblolly pine plantations (n = 6) within pocosins in the Lower Coastal Plain of North Carolina, USA, during summers of 2002–2005, 2007–2009. Although woody and vine forage plants for deer and quail were common on all treatments, chemical site preparation resulted in long‐term decreases (approx. 50% for 8 yr) in coverage of these plants. Type of mechanical site preparation–spacing and herbaceous weed‐control had few effects on woody and herbaceous deer and quail food plants. Dissimilar from research in other regions, reduction in woody cover did not provide a concurrent increase in herbaceous food plants. Because of relatively poor forage quality in pocosin habitats, vegetation management practices may reduce deer and quail food quantity without increasing quality. However, because abundance of low‐quality forage is high in pocosin habitats, localized forage reductions due to site‐preparation techniques may not affect overall carrying capacity in these areas. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.

Abstract There is a paucity of information concerning northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) chick demography caused by a deficiency of efficient published capture techniques and permanent unique markers for identification. In order to facilitate chick research, we employed a thermal camera to detect and capture chicks during the preflight stage (≤14 days old) brooded by a radiomarked female. We released a known number of chicks into native vegetation within a flight pen to test this technique. Observers (unaware of the number) then used a thermal camera to successfully count (≥95% intra‐class correlation coeff.; complete counts for each age class) and capture the chicks. In separate field tests, we homed to within 10 m of the roost location of wild radiomarked females before sunrise, circled the area until the brood heat signature was observed, and flushed the female from the chicks. We located 116 chicks from 43 broods with the thermal camera throughout the 2011 nesting season with 81% complete, 12% partial, and 7% failed captures attempts. Detection of chicks by the thermal camera was not affected by age. Complete brood abandonment was not detected as a result of capture events. The employment of a thermal camera to capture chicks should advance the success and efficiency of capture and thus promote research concerning brood ecology. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.

Abstract We assessed the effects of using a broadcast caller during surveys and increasing survey duration to estimate northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) density and occupancy. From 15 May 2009 to 15 August 2009, we conducted repeat‐visit breeding bobwhite surveys at 180 sites in Delaware, USA. Increasing survey duration from 3 min to 7 min, or using a broadcast caller, improved detection probability for a single visit by 52% and 42%, respectively. However, density estimates when using a broadcast caller were biased high—≥3 times greater compared to passive‐listening surveys. Density estimates for 3‐min and 7‐min passive surveys were not different. Additionally, bobwhite occupancy was similar among all 3 survey treatments. Use of a broadcast caller to survey for bobwhites appears to violate the assumption of distance sampling that an individual is detected prior to movement. Use of a broadcast caller is inappropriate for determining density estimates through distance sampling, but may be appropriate for determining site occupancy. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.

Abstract We compared 4 external radiotransmitter attachment techniques to determine the optimum attachment method on chicks of 2 galliform species. The attachment methods included tissue glue, silicone gel, suturing, and leg harness. The study was conducted in captivity with a 2‐phase assessment: first with northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), and then chukar (Alectoris chukar) chicks. We applied each technique and assessed effects on growth rates, retention times, ease of attaching the transmitter, and effects on physical development. No apparent adverse impacts on chicks were observed for any of the attachment techniques. We found the leg‐harness technique was most reliable in terms of retention time, required the least amount of handling time, and was the simplest to administer. Modifications to our suture technique likely would result in similar retention times, but would still require additional handling time and complexity in attaching transmitters. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.

The Farm Bill provides a policy vehicle for implementing conservation programs with the potential to alter land use on a large spatial scale. The conservation payments under the Farm Bill dwarf the collective investment of the North American Wetlands Conservation Act, Endangered Species Act, Pittman-Robertson Act, and Conservation and Reinvestment Act. However, the ecological value of past policy has varied by program, practice, region, and wildlife species, resulting in a broad array of wildlife habitat and population effects ranging from positive to negative. We argue the conservation provisions of the Farm Bill can produce more consistent positive wildlife habitat benefits when policy (program statutes, rules, practices, and practice standards) is developed in the context of explicit goals identified as part of large-scale conservation initiatives. For example, initiatives like the North American Waterfowl Management Plan, Partners in Flight, and the Northern Bobwhite Conservation Initiative (NBCI) set science-based goals and objectives to facilitate wildlife species population recovery and sustainability at the landscape scale. We contend that the best ecological and societal cost/benefit ratio is achieved when Farm Bill conservation programs and practices are developed to address these specific habitat goals. We present a case study illustrating how a Conservation Reserve Program option (Conservation Practice 33--Habitat Buffers for Upland Birds) specifically addresses NBCI goals and objectives. We discuss the successes, failures, and lessons learned by NCBI in policy formulation, practice development, programmatic delivery, and evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fallow-field borders along edges of crop fields have been promoted for increasing northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) on farms and are a component of recovery plans for this species. However, research on bobwhite population response to field-border practices is sparse. Previous research on 2 farms documented increased use of farm fields and greater reproduction by bobwhites on farms with field borders, but nesting success was low during May and June. Bobwhite population response to field-border practices may increase when they are combined with nest-predator reduction on farms. Effect of nest-predator reduction on bobwhite populations on farmed landscapes has not been investigated in the Southeast. Therefore, we tested the effects of field borders and mesomammal nest-predator reduction on bobwhite abundance on 12 farms in eastern North Carolina, 1997-1999. We applied treatments to farms as factorial combinations. Reduction of mesomammal nest predators, including raccoons (Procyon lotor), Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana), and foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus and Vulpes vulpes), occurred from February-May of each year. To assess bobwhite response to treatments, we measured summer abundance of males using variable-radius point counts and covey abundance on farms in September and October using morning covey-call surveys. Bobwhites were more abundant on farms with field borders during summer (P=0.08). On field-border farms we heard 1.8x the number of coveys heard on farms without field borders (P=0.004). Summer abundance of bobwhites did not differ as a result of predator reductions (P=0.37), and we heard slightly fewer coveys on predator-reduction farms (P =0.084) during autumn. However, we heard more coveys on farms with both field borders and predator reduction compared to all other farms (P=0.022). Field-border systems were a practical management technique to increase autumn abundance of bobwhites on individual farms in eastern North Carolina. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arthropod abundance commonly is used as an index for brood-habitat quality for northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) chicks. However, conventional arthropod sampling techniques may not measure the abundance of arthropods available to chicks. Human-imprinted chicks have been used to jointly measure arthropod abundance and availability; however, no studies have examined potential differences in growth rates and foraging behavior between pen and wild-strain chicks. Likewise, use of internal ligatures has not been tested. We compared growth (g/day) and foraging rates (g/chick/30 minutes) between pen and wild-strain chicks and foraging rates between ligatured and nonligatured chicks. At 9 days post-hatch, pen-strain chicks (LSMEANS=20.315, SE=0.456) weighed more than wild-strain chicks (LSMEANS=1 7.665, SE=0.556; F1,1013=32.34, ) <0.001). Foraging rate did not differ between ligatured (...=0.041, SE=0.007) and nonligatured (...=0.028, SE=O.004) chicks (t38=-1 .69, P=0.100). Pen-strain chicks consumed slightly greater dry biomass than wild-strain chicks, but both consumed similar-sized arthropods. Ligatured, commercially produced chicks may serve as a reasonable biological assay for indexing arthropod availability and brood-habitat quality for wild northern bobwhite chicks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We assessed supplemental feeding in a crossover design to determine its value in managing the dispersion and mortality of northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) in Roberts County, Texas Panhandle, during October-March 2000-2001, 2001-2002, and 2002-2003. Nontarget species made up 98% of feeder visits (n=152 visits in 480 hours of surveillance). The average home range (ha) on the fed site was 34% of that on the control site (95% CL=21-48%) in 2001-2002 and 63% (39-103%) in 2002-2003, suggesting that feeders localized coveys. Fall-spring survival estimates were 0.57 (0.40-0.73) on the fed site versus 0.72 (0.53-0.91) on the control site in 2001-2002; estimates were 0.24 (0.16-0.33) on the fed site versus 0.28 (0.22-0.34) on the control site in 2002-2003, indicating null effects of feeding on fall-spring survival. Apparent vulnerability of bobwhites to loss sources (avian or mammalian predators, other losses) was not affected by feeding. Based on our results, managers who wish to localize coveys could accomplish that objective using feeders; otherwise, food supplementation was a neutral management practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Declining northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) populations during the past 30 years have prompted managers to seek ways to improve habitat quality for this species. Reductions in frequency of prescribed fire throughout considerable expanses of mature pine (Pinus spp.) forests have resulted in closed-canopy conditions, predominantly woody understory conditions, and a loss of early-successional habitats needed by bobwhites. Herbicides, particularly in conjunction with prescribed fire, may be useful for managing these pine forests to benefit the bobwhite and other early-successional species, but effects of herbicides in combination with fire are not well understood. Therefore, we used 3 similar-aged, mature pine stands to evaluate vegetative response to selective herbicides with prescribed fire with respect to bobwhite nesting and brood-rearing habitats. Our treatments were imazapyr with fire, imazapyr combined with glyphosate with fire, and dormant-season prescribed fire only. Plant diversity tended to decline on herbicide treatments during the first year but increased substantially on imazapyr plots during the second growing season following a burn. Bobwhite food plants increased following application of imazapyr during the first growing season and were greater for both herbicide treatments than burning alone during the second growing season. Abundance of hardwoods declined on both herbicide treatments. However, no treatments produced bare-ground percentages known to be selected by bobwhites, and only prescribed fire alone created and maintained suitable escape cover. Overall, imazapyr with fire provided the greatest net improvement in vegetative conditions for bobwhites and retained floristic diversity. We recommend that managers target areas in which vegetative conditions have progressed to where burning alone is incapable of restoring early-successional plant communities needed by the bobwhite and other species and apply imazapyr with fire to create divers... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In southern pine (Pinus spp.) stands, managers have used a variety of treatments to control hardwood encroachment and improve habitat conditions for northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus). We compared use of the herbicide Arsenal® (BASF Corporation, Research Triangle Park, N.C.) (imazapyr) and traditional mechanical treatments, with and without fire, to control hardwood encroachment on study sites on Tall Timbers Research Station in the Red Hills Region near Tallahassee, Florida. Hardwood stem density decreased on herbicide and herbicide+burn plots but increased on all mechanically treated plots at 1 year after treatment. Herbicide and herbicide+burn treatments resulted in a >3-fold increase in forb coverage 1 year after treatment, whereas forb coverage did not increase in mechanically treated plots. A single application of imazapyr, with or without prescribed fire, can control hardwood encroachment and stimulate herbaceous species growth. Following treatment, vegetative communities likely can be maintained for prolonged periods by using traditional methods such as prescribed fire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) are one of the most broadly researched and intensively managed species in North America. However, we argue that a disadvantage of this status is that traditional management principles currently are incompatible with the spatial scale necessary to address the nationwide decline in bobwhite abundance. We maintain that halting or reversing this decline will entail 2 principal changes in the scale of management. Primarily we suggest that habitat oversight must switch from historical fine-scale management (promotion of edge habitat, weedy fencelines, disked strips, living hedges, and food plots) to regional management of usable space. Secondly, within these regional management areas, we should apply harvest management that employs risk-sensitive strategies that conservatively avoid undermining the primary goal. This entails narrowing the scale of harvest management from statewide to regional levels. If these ideological changes cannot be made and historical policies remain in force, we risk failing to stabilize, let alone increase, bobwhite populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An increasingly common practice in southern Texas is baiting roads with grains such as milo (Sorghum spp.) and corn (Zea mays) to facilitate northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) harvest. However, baiting roads might have a negative impact on bobwhite survival by increasing predation or harvest rates. The objective of this project was to determine the effects of road baiting on bobwhite survival, home-range size, and predator abundance. The project involved 2 study sites (baited=treatment and nonbaited=control) that were monitored over 3 periods, pre-baiting (September-October), baiting (November-December), and post-baiting (January-February), during 2001-2002 and 2002-2003. We captured, radiomarked, and monitored bobwhites (n=60 [treatment site]; n=58 [control site]) in Jim Hogg County, Texas. We assessed relative abundance and activity of avian and mammalian predators using scent-station and road surveys, respectively. The effects of baiting roads varied between years. During 2001-2002, a relatively dry period, bobwhite survival (S = 1.00 ± 0.00 [control site]; S=0.68 ± 0.10 [treatment site], P = 0.01), covey home-range size (15.6 ± 1.43 ha [control site]; 12.7 ± 2.22 ha [treatment site], P = 0.046), and covey distance to roads (193 ± 24.6 m [control site]; 95 ± 41.57 m [treatment site], P ≤ 0.001) were lower on the treatment site during the feeding period in contrast to the control site. A nonsignificant trend was noted for higher avian predator abundance on the treatment site during the feeding period. During 2002-2003, a relatively wet period, no difference in bobwhite survival, covey home-range size, and covey distance to roads was found between sites and time periods due to baiting, and no trend in predator abundance was found between pastures and time periods. The practice of baiting ranch roads does not appear to benefit bobwhites in southern Texas, and during dry conditions the practice might be... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Radiotelemetry is commonly used in northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) research. An underlying assumption is that radiomarked individuals provide unbiased estimates of population parameters. Our objectives were to evaluate the effects of radiotransmitters on body mass and feed consumption of radiomarked and banded-only pen-raised bobwhites in a controlled environment and to compare daily energy expenditure (kJ/g/day) between treatments in a simulated field setting. We randomly assigned a treatment (i.e., radiomarked or banded-only) to 40 pen-raised bobwhites and placed them in individual cages (51- x 27- x 28-cm) within an environmental chamber. We conducted 2 separate 21-day experiments to simulate summer (35°C daytime high, 23.9°C nighttime low, 15-hour photoperiod) and winter conditions (18.3°C daytime high, 4.4°C nighttime low, 10-hour photoperiod) typical for south Texas. For the field experiment, we evaluated energy expenditure via doubly labeled water for radiomarked (n=5) and banded-only pen-raised bobwhites (n=5) in a flight pen (50- x 30- x 4-m). We documented no difference in change in body mass or feed consumption between radiomarked and banded-only bobwhites during either experiment (P > 0.05). We also found no difference in daily energy expenditure between radiomarked (0.839 ± 0.056 kJ/g/day) and banded-only pen-raised bobwhites (0.804 ± 0.014 kJ/g/day; P=0.77). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Having become suspicious of telemetry-based survival rates reported for northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus), we surveyed the published record to determine whether reported survival rates were consistent with empirical expectations of production, for which there exists a vast database. If the production (juvenile/adult) required to stabilize a population at a reported or inferred annual survival rate was ≤ 7, we deemed the reported survival rate reasonable; otherwise, we deemed it not reasonable. We obtained 58 estimates of survival rates for unique points in space and time; 83% of these were not reasonable (apparently biased low). These results and supporting information strongly suggest (but do not necessarily prove) that radio packages (harness, transmitter, antenna) somehow handicap bobwhites. We recommend that researchers be extremely skeptical of telemetry data, plan telemetry studies such that independent data on population performance are available for comparison with telemetry estimates, and discuss the demographic implications of telemetry estimates. We also suggest that radiotelemetry might not always be appropriate for a given research question and that alternative methods be employed whenever possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lack of a technique to capture northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) chicks has hindered research on this life stage. Therefore, we developed a technique for capturing northern bobwhite chicks ≤12 days of age that were associated with a radiomarked adult. We located a radiomarked adult with a brood 1.5 hours before sunrise by homing to within 5-10 m from ≥3 directions. After the brooding adult was located, we erected a corral composed of screen-covered panels around the brood. Near sunrise, we removed vegetation and ground debris until the adult flushed and all chicks within the corral were captured. We then patagially marked chicks and released them near the radiomarked adult. Between 1997 and 2001, we captured 1,325 chicks from 224 broods. Of these 224 capture attempts, 71% captured all chicks, 17% captured some but not all chicks, and 13% were complete failures. Capture-success rate was independent of chick age, up to 12 days of age. An average of 7.3 (SE=0.3) chicks were captured per attempt, with fewer chicks captured in older broods than younger broods. Chick loss due to the capture event was negligible. This technique may have utility for researchers studying brood ecology of northern bobwhite or other precocial birds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evaluates the effect of prickly pear cactus control on the survival and nest success of northern bobwhites in Texas. List of potential nest predators; Description of the study area; Methods; Results.

Presents a study that examined the cause-specific mortality of northern bobwhite populations near and far from food plots in Kansas. Impact of deep snow cover and extreme cold temperature on the survival of bobwhites; Cause of mortality in food-plot and non-food-plot birds in Kansas; Effect of food plots on hunting vulnerability of bobwhites.

Presents a study which tested the validity of using simulated nests with varying clutch characteristics to infer nest success of actual bobwhite and wild turkey nests. Methods; Results; Discussion.

Presents a study which determined the energy characteristics and consumption by bobwhites of seeds of several plants recommended for plantings to benefit quail. Methods; Results; Discussion.

Presents a study which examined the effectiveness of controlled burning, disking and herbicide applications to improve bobwhite habitat in fescue-dominated fields in the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources Wildlife Management Areas. Cause of the decline of northern bobwhite populations in eastern United States; How fescue-dominated fields may be improved for bobwhites; Methods used; Results and discussion.

Presents information on a study which examined the calling behavior of northern bobwhite males in Oklahoma to improve the accuracy and repeatability of the call-count index. Methodology; Results of the study; Discussion.

Reports on a study which evaluated the efficacy of techniques in killing tall fescue and described the establishment of native warm-season grasses to improve habitat for northern bobwhite. Effects on tall fescue; Plant community characteristics; Implications of the study.

Provides information on a study which examined harvested bobwhites during 1992-1996 to determine effects of climatic stress in winter on use of supplemental feeders and their impact on survival rate in winter. Study area and methods; Results and discussion.

Presents a study on the role of free water in the ecology and management of northern bobwhites or Colinus virginianus. Aspects of water ecology; Water sources of bobwhites; Water requirements of domesticated bobwhites and wild-strain Texas bobwhites; Conclusions.

Investigates the winter habitat use and the impacts of hunting on survival of Northern bobwhites at three separate study areas of the Ashepoo Plantation in South Carolina, conducted last November to March 1991 to 1992. Effects of hunting disturbances to bobwhites; Habitat preferences of bobwhites; Predation as a significant bobwhite mortality factor.

Presents information on a study which examined the rural mail carrier survey to determine the most appropriate index of population of the northern bobwhite. Information on rural mail carrier surveys; Methodology; Results and discussion.