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ABSTRACT Although many aspects of white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus) biology and physiology have been studied thoroughly, few studies have examined deer perception. We obtained a behavioral measure of light-adapted visual sensitivity based on performance of 7 deer in forced-choice discrimination tests. We compared intensity thresholds at the short and long wavelengths of their purported visual spectrum. Utilizing an automated training device, we trained deer to discriminate between lit and unlit light-emitting diode (LED) lights expressing monochromatic wavelengths, and recorded performance across a series of decreasing intensities for each wavelength until deer could no longer discriminate the light stimulus. We regressed a best-fit logistic function to each deer's performance as intensity decreased at a single wavelength, demarcated the sensitivity threshold to that wavelength, and compared deer's sensitivity threshold across wavelengths. Our behavior-based sensitivity measurements agreed with previous estimates of white-tailed deer's cone photoreceptor sensitivity. We confirm that these cone photoreceptors contribute to deer behavior, and that deer have a greater perceptual sensitivity to shorter wavelengths and lower sensitivity to longer wavelengths. Our findings also suggest the deer have some sensitivity to ultraviolet light. The visual perception of the white-tailed deer is specialized for sensitivity during their crepuscular patterns, enables detection of predators along their horizon, and is well-adapted for a prey species. © 2014 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although many aspects of white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus) biology and physiology have been studied thoroughly, few studies have confirmed deer cognitive perception, partly because of the difficulty of efficiently training sufficient numbers of deer to respond behaviorally in controlled experiments. We present a system that trains white-tailed deer to associate a supra-threshold, white-light stimulus with a food reward through operant conditioning techniques. The 'deer training apparatus' (DTA) automatically dispenses food, rings a start buzzer, randomly assigns a stimulus light over 1 of 2 troughs, and registers a deer's choice. If a deer goes to a trough with the light illuminated, then a correct choice is registered. All 6 deer tested met successful training criteria by Day 19, and a performance of 88.2% ± 3.9% correct choices by Day 25. We conclude that the DTA presents an effective and efficient way of training white-tailed deer, and provides an experimental platform for future research on behavior, perception, and preference. Thus, the DTA should be useful to researchers evaluating behavioral response of deer, and possibly other wild and domestic species, to various visual and auditory stimuli. © 2012 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although roadside fences have been proven effective at reducing deer-vehicle collisions (DVCs), information on how these fences alter deer behavior is lacking. We evaluated the effects of a traditional and a novel fencing design, constructed alongside a roadway, on movements and home ranges of white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus). From January to April 2009, we fitted 14 adult female deer with Global Positioning System collars, programmed to collect ≥24 locations/day. In June 2009 we constructed a 3.2-km fence that included a 1.6-km section of 2.4-m vertical-wire fence and a 1.6-km section of a prototype outrigger fence (i.e., 0.6 m, shade-cloth [50% opaque plastic sheeting] on a 45° outrigger angled toward the deer attached to the top of a 1.2 m, vertical-wire fence). We retrieved collars between January and March 2010. We compared home ranges, fence crossings, and fence circumventions among deer that encountered the outrigger and 2.4-m fences as well as for deer that encountered neither fence (i.e., controls), before and after fence construction. Actual crossings of the fence area were reduced, postconstruction, by 98% and 90% for the 2.4 m and outrigger treatment groups, respectively, suggesting that the fences were sufficiently effective to simulate how deer respond to roadside barriers. Deer with pretreatment home ranges that approached or encompassed the fence endings maintained a high degree of site fidelity by circumventing the endings. This study highlights the importance of incorporating information on deer behavior and resource usage into DVC-reduction strategies. If these factors are not accounted for, DVC frequency will likely stay the same, or increase, near fence endings. Thus, roadside fences should likely end at natural barriers to deer movements (i.e., heavy development) or incorporate some means of safe crossing into their endings. © 2011 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]