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In this paper, we propose SR3 (which means secure resilient reputation-based routing), a secure and resilient algorithm for convergecast routing in wireless sensor networks. SR3 uses lightweight cryptographic primitives to achieve data confidentiality and unforgeability. Security of SR3 has been proven formally using two verification tools: CryptoVerif and Scyther. We made simulations to show the resiliency of SR3 against various scenarios, where we mixed selective forwarding, blackhole, wormhole, and Sybil attacks. We compared our solution to several routing algorithms of the literature. Our results show that the resiliency accomplished by SR3 is drastically better than the one achieved by those protocols, especially when the network is sparse. Moreover, unlike previous solutions, SR3 self-adapts after compromised nodes suddenly change their behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efficient message dissemination in vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs) is crucial for supporting communication among vehicles and also between users and the Internet, with minimal delay and overhead but maximum reachability. To improve the message dissemination in these networks, we show the need to study the graph-theoretic properties of VANETs, since they neither follow the small-world nor the scale-free network characteristics often found in large self-organized networks. We consider three fundamental properties: connectivity, node degree, and clustering coefficient. For each property, we develop and validate analytical models for both the urban and highway scenarios, building an extensive graph structure perspective on VANETs. With this, we see how connectivity changes with network density, that VANETs exhibit truncated Gaussian node degree distributions, and that network clustering coefficients do not depend on the network's size or density. We then show how these results can be used to generate individual behavior favorable to the whole network using local information. The usefulness of this new approach is demonstrated by proposing new mechanisms to enhance the urban vehicular broadcasting protocol UV-CAST. Our results show that these new mechanisms lead to excellent performance while reducing the overhead in the UV-CAST protocol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The characteristics of MANET such as decentralization, dynamic topology and openness are susceptible for security threats. To overcome the security threats and to provide a reliable network to transmit packets, a need for trust based routing arises. Moreover, the trust along with energy requirement on ad hoc on demand distance vector have paved way for the development of the newly proposed algorithm named as refined trust and energy based ad hoc on demand distance vector algorithm which is the refined form of the existing trust and energy based ad hoc on demand distance vector algorithms and the classical AODV. In this paper, the refinement parameter is the trust. Moreover, Bayesian probability is introduced in this paper for trust management due to its ability to handle uncertainty for obtaining the refined form of Trust calculation. The proposed algorithm routes the packets from the source to destination not through the shortest route but by selecting a reliable route which consumes low energy and trustful for sending the packets. The simulation results obtained from this work show that the proposed algorithm performs better than the existing algorithms in terms of Trust based routing and energy efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mainly because of resource restrictions in wireless sensor networks (WSNs), extending the lifetime of the network, has gained significant attention in the last several years. As energy becomes a quite challenging issue in these networks, clustering protocols are employed to deal with this problem. One of the main research areas in cluster-based routing protocols is fair distribution and balancing the overall energy consumption in the WSN, by selecting the most suitable cluster heads (CHs). In order to reduce the energy consumption and enhancing the CHs selection process a new routing protocol based on fuzzy logic has been proposed. There exist several algorithms based of fuzzy logic to select the most proper CHs for the network. But these algorithms do not consider all the important parameters and information of the sensor nodes in order to guarantee the optimal selection of the CHs. In The proposed algorithm, a two-step fuzzy logic system is used to select the appropriate CHs. The selection of CHs is based on six descriptors; residual energy, density, distance to base station, vulnerability index, centrality and distance between CHs. The result of the simulation indicates that, the proposed algorithm performs better comparing with some other similar approaches in case of fair distribution and balancing of the overall energy consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Owing to the growth in several applications, Wireless Mesh Networks (WMN) is emerging as a vital technology for future wireless networks. Wormhole attack is one of the major security threats, which can disturb majority of routing communications, even when placed strategically. Therefore, a technique that can find wormhole-free routes in the network is required. In order to achieve this, in this paper, we propose a Monitoring Technique for Wormhole-Free Routing and DoS Attack Defense in WMNs. Initially, finite state model is applied where the node keeps the information about its sender and neighborhood receiver. Then, wormhole-aware secure routing is implemented to find wormhole free routes in the network. Finally, the priority mechanism is applied where the data packets are transmitted based on their priority. Based on the finite state model and priority mechanism, the malicious or wormhole nodes in the network are removed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Being a member of the post quantum cryptography family, multivariate public key cryptographic (MPKC) system enjoys many useful properties such as fast implementation and moderate resources requirement, which is quite suitable for the wireless sensor network (WSN). However, MPKC system requires the usage of large public and private keys to ensure security which makes it inapplicable to wireless sensors with very limited system resources. In this paper, we propose an online/offline signature scheme based on a well known MPKC scheme: unbalanced oil and vinegar signature scheme for the wireless sensor network. Our scheme can reduce the cost of hardware running on signing process and the storage space of private key in the online signing phase. What is more, by combining a recent technique, the total storage requirement in a WSN node reduces by 85.8 % for the recommended parameters, which makes our new scheme feasible for the practical deployment on the WSN platforms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vehicular networks are popular in recent years to provide low cost communication medium during mobility. Vehicular Delay Tolerant Networks (DTNs) are one of the major categories of emerging technology. DTNs work on carry and forward mechanism to deliver data to the destination. The network performance gets severely affected due to reluctance shown by selfish nodes where few nodes show no interest in forwarding others data due to lack of any personal profit. The proposed mechanism is based on coalition game theory and discusses about incentive based mechanism which provides incentive to nodes which are forwarding data to forward to destination and motivates other vehicles in the network to participate in coalition to forward data. This scheme not only encourages other selfish nodes to forward their private data and other nodes' public data as early as possible to destination but also increases reliability in the network as more nodes show their interest in selected routing protocol. The proposed scheme outperforms in overall benefit earned by individual node and whole coalition, and increases mutual cooperation which improves availability of data in the network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of this research is to conduct a performance analysis of various multipath routing protocols in wireless multimedia sensor networks for the efficient transmission of the image, audio and video data. To provide efficient routing for the large sized multimedia content, various multipath routing protocols such as energy-aware routing, QoS based routing and geographical routing methods are analyzed. In this analysis, the efficient routing techniques including geographical routing techniques such as GPSR, DGR, PW-DGR presented for wireless multimedia sensor networks are studied and the performance of each technique is evaluated to determine the efficient multipath routing technique. Comparisons are made for evaluated protocols and it is proved that the PW-DGR provides better routing performance for the multimedia data. The findings of the research also show that the PW-DGR method efficiently overcomes the routing problems such as energy bottleneck problem, energy-hole, reduced network lifetime and high delay in packet transmission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we show experimentally the feasibility of intervehicle communication of warning information. Warning messages convey significant information that might improve the safety of drivers and passengers. Intervehicle communication can be achieved by the detection of important events through a vision-based detection module, and sharing them between vehicles using a transmission module. In this paper, we developed a testbed that considers both modules in order to detect, recognize and share relevant information, such as traffic signs. To the best of our knowledge, our architecture is the first that combines detection and transmission of messages in the same platform. We detect traffic signs as blobs using the Maximally Stable Extremal Regions (MSER) algorithm, and we recognize them using Random forest classifiers. In the transmission module, we used a simplied broadcasting mechanism that avoids the use of handshaking to establish a communication. In order to assess our system, a set of indoor and outdoor experiments are considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

VANET is an ad hoc network that formed between vehicles. Security in VANET plays vital role. AODV routing protocol is a reactive or on-demand routing protocol which means if there is data to be send then the path will create. AODV is the most commonly used topology based routing protocol for VANET. Using of broadcast packets in the AODV route discovery phase caused it is extremely vulnerable against DOS and DDOS flooding attacks. Flooding attack is type of a denial of service attack that causes loss of network bandwidth and imposes high overhead to the network. The method proposed in this paper called Balanced AODV (B-AODV) because it expects all network node behave normally. If network nodes are out of the normal behavior (too much route request) then they identified as malicious node. B-AODV is designed with following feature: (1) The use of adaptive threshold according to network conditions and nodes behavior (balance index) (2) Not using additional routing packets to detect malicious nodes (3) Perform detection and prevention operations independently on each node (4) Perform detection and prevention operations in real time (5) No need for promiscuous mode. This method for detection and prevention flooding attack uses average and standard deviation. In this method each node is employing balance index for acceptation or rejection RREQ packets. The results of the simulation in NS2 indicates B-AODV is resilience against flooding attack and prevent loss of network bandwidth. Comparing between AODV with B-AODV in normal state (non-attacker) shows B-AODV is exactly match with AODV in network performance, this means that the B-AODV algorithm does not impose any overhead and false positive to AODV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have grown excessively due to their various applications and low installation cost. In WSN, the main concern is to reduce energy consumption among nodes while maintaining timely and reliable data forwarding. However, most of the existing energy aware routing protocols incur unbalanced energy consumption, which results in inefficient load balancing and compromised network lifetime. Therefore, the main target of this research paper is to present adaptive energy aware cluster-based routing (AECR) protocol for improving energy conservation and data delivery performance. Our proposed AECR protocol differs from other energy efficient routing schemes in some aspects. Firstly, it generates balance sized clusters based on nodes distribution and avoids random clusters formation. Secondly, it optimizes both intra-cluster and inter-cluster routing paths for improving data delivery performance while balancing data traffic on constructed forwarding routes and at the end, in order to reduce the excessive energy consumption and improving load distribution, the role of Cluster Head (CH) is shifted dynamically among nodes by exploit of network conditions. Simulation results demonstrate that AECR protocol outperforms state of the art in terms of various performance metrics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hybrid wireless mesh networks are the most generic types of wireless mesh networks. Unlike static mesh routers, which have multiple radio interfaces and almost no energy constraint, mobile mesh clients are usually equipped with a single radio interface and have energy limitations. A cooperative hybrid routing protocol (CHRP) combining advantages of proactive and reactive routing protocols by letting them work cooperatively is proposed in this paper, which can adapt to features of both routers and clients. In CHRP, in order to make a proper route selection, channel condition, interference and constrained energy of clients are considered in the node-aware routing metric. Besides, a cross-layer approach is used in CHRP. Both gateway and client oriented data flows are considered comprehensively. The simulation results using ns-3 show the advantage of the proposed CHRP in terms of average packet loss rate, average latency, average network throughput, average energy consumption of clients and the minimum residual energy of clients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANET) is made up of mobile devices which form an infrastructure-less network. In MANET, the devices can change its location and configure itself at any time. Hence, there is a possibility for the network to be prone to abnormal network events due to certain factors like error in the links, overflow in the buffers, layers, and so forth. So, in this paper, a cross-layer based congestion detection and routing protocol is proposed using Fuzzy logic. In this protocol, whenever a network event occurs, the kind of event occurring is recognized in order to handle it accordingly. Next, the alternate routes for data transmission are determined by applying the concept of fuzzy logic on some of the critical factors. Based on the fuzzy inference rules, appropriate routes are selected and data messages are transmitted successfully. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The design of routing protocol with energy efficiency and security is a challenging task. To overcome this challenge, we propose energy-efficient secured routing protocol. The objective of our work is to provide a secured routing protocol, which is energy efficient. To provide security for both link and message without relying on the third party, we provide security to the protocol by choosing a secure link for routing using Secure Optimized Link State Routing Protocol. Each node chooses multipoint relay nodes amongst the set of one-hop neighbors, so as to reach all two-hop neighbors. The access control entity authorizes nodes announcing the node identification to the network. In addition, the access control entity signs a public key Ki, a private key ki, and the certificate Ci required by an authorized node to obtain the group key. Each node maintains a route table with power status as one of its entry. After selecting the link, on requirement of a new route, we check nodes' power status in its routing table and then accordingly arise a route. Then, we perform group key distribution using the generated keys using a small number of messages which helps reducing energy consumption. The group key can be altered periodically to avoid nonauthorized nodes and to avoid the use of the same group key in more than some amount of data. Then, we provide communication privacy for both message sender and message recipient using Secure Source Anonymous Message Authentication Scheme. Thereby, the message sender or the sending node generates a source anonymous message authentication for message for releasing each message based on the MES scheme. Hence, our approach will provide message content authenticity without relying on any trusted third parties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy constraint is one of the inherent defects of the Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). How to prolong the lifespan of the network has attracted more and more attention. Numerous achievements have emerged successively recently. Among these mechanisms designing routing protocols is one of the most promising ones owing to the large amount of energy consumed for data transmission. The background and related works are described firstly in detail in this paper. Then a game model for selecting the Cluster Head is presented. Subsequently, a novel routing protocol named Game theory based Energy Efficient Clustering routing protocol (GEEC) is proposed. GEEC, which belongs to a kind of clustering routing protocols, adopts evolutionary game theory mechanism to achieve energy exhaust equilibrium as well as lifetime extension at the same time. Finally, extensive simulation experiments are conducted. The experimental results indicate that a significant improvement in energy balance as well as in energy conservation compared with other two kinds of well-known clustering routing protocols is achieved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Routing protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) are designed to select parent nodes so that data packets can reach their destination in a timely and efficient manner. Typically neighboring nodes with strongest connectivity are more selected as parents. This Greedy Routing approach can lead to unbalanced routing loads in the network. Consequently, the network experiences the early death of overloaded nodes causing permanent network partition. Herein, we propose a framework for load balancing of routing in WSN. In-network path tagging is used to monitor network traffic load of nodes. Based on this, nodes are identified as being relatively overloaded, balanced or underloaded. A mitigation algorithm finds suitable new parents for switching from overloaded nodes. The routing engine of the child of the overloaded node is then instructed to switch parent. A key future of the proposed framework is that it is primarily implemented at the Sink and so requires few changes to existing routing protocols. The framework was implemented in TinyOS on TelosB motes and its performance was assessed in a testbed network and in TOSSIM simulation. The algorithm increased the lifetime of the network by 41 % as recorded in the testbed experiment. The Packet Delivery Ratio was also improved from 85.97 to 99.47 %. Finally a comparative study was performed using the proposed framework with various existing routing protocols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is expected that in the next year, over a billion wireless sensor network (WSN) nodes will be deployed throughout the world, constituting a wide variety of sensor applications. In such a domain, management of the randomly distributed sensor networks is complicated by issues such as knowledge of energy consumption and coverage, extended lifetimes and demands for improved quality of service parameters. Several researchers have addressed these issues through their own innovations and discoveries of different schemes, methods, techniques or mathematical models and architectures or applications, using a variety of node designs. This in turn, has lead to multiple different choices of hardware and software options. However, this has not simplified the process of setting up application testbeds considering energy consumption. There is no readily available solution for setting up a WSN with user selected profiles and parameters. Multiple communication protocols, routing protocols, signal calibration and propagation methods, data aggregation schemes, clustering formations with multiple variations have been proposed for different research objectives. This paper proposes a method for consolidating all the initiatives and integrating these in a service panel framework that helps manage the desired WSN with options to set up an individual WSN profile and supporting the energy engineering processes involved in the WSN. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Even though some velocity based routing protocols for ( m,k)-firm stream have been recently proposed in multimedia wireless sensor networks, there are still many perspective parameters to be considered for forwarding procedure. Moreover, since they are not correlated with each other, multi-criteria system for forwarding is desirable to select next hop. However, current existing protocols apply these parameters sequentially without any prioritization. To address this issue, in this paper, we propose two ( m,k)-firm specific routing protocols based on fuzzy interference system and analytical hierarchical process in conjunction with the gray relational analysis. In each protocol, delivery ratio, energy, speed, ( m,k)-firm stream requirement as well as current stream status are used to select the best appropriate next hop while considering given node's constraints. Through the simulation results, we demonstrate that the proposed scheme gracefully maintains ( m,k)-firm requirement while extending the network lifetime. Finally, superiority of the proposed approach to existing velocity based routing protocols is also proven through diverse simulation scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent research, link stability is getting tremendous attention in mobile adhoc networks (MANETs), because of several impediments that occur in a reliable and robust network. Link stability metric is used to improve network performance in terms of end-to-end delay, data success delivery ratio (DSDR) and available route time (ART). Energy consumption, bandwidth and communication delay of major concern in ad hoc networks. A high mobility of MANET nodes reduces the reliability of network communication. In a dynamic networks, high mobility of the nodes makes it very difficult to predict the dynamic routing topology and hence cause route/link failures. Multicast in MANETs is an emerging trend that effectively improves the performance while lowering the energy consumption and bandwidth usage. Multicast routing protocol transmits a packet to multicast a group at a given time instant to achieve a better utilization of resources. In this paper, node mobility is considered to map better their movement in the network. So, the links with long active duration time can be identified as a stable link for route construction. Variation in signal strength is used to identify whether the direction of the node is towards or away from estimating node. We consider signal strength as QoS metric to calculate link stability for route construction. Efforts are made to identify the link with highly probable longer lifetime as the best suitable link between two consecutive nodes. We predict the movement time of nodes that define the route path to the node destination. Exata/cyber simulator is used for network simulation. The simulation results of the proposed routing protocol are compared with on-demand multicast routing protocol and E-ODMRP, which works on minimum hop count path. Analysis of our simulation results has shown improvement of various routing performance metrics such as DSDR, ART, routing overhead and packet drop ratio. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growth of wireless networks has resulted in part from requirements for connecting people and advances in radio technologies. Wireless sensor networks are an example of these networks in which a large number of tiny devices interacting with their environments may be inter-networked together and accessible through the Internet. As these devices may be scattered in an unplanned way, a routing protocol is needed. The RPL protocol is the IETF proposed standard protocol for IPv6-based multi-hop WSN. RPL requires that communication paths go through a central router which may provide suboptimal paths, not considering the characteristics of the applications the nodes run. In this paper is proposed an Application-Driven extension to RPL which enables to increase the WSN lifetime by limiting the routing and forwarding functions of the network mainly to nodes running the same application. As nodes may join a network at a non predictable time, they must be synchronized with respect to their application duty cycles. Therefore, nodes have to wake up and sleep in a synchronized way. In this paper it is also proposed such synchronization mechanism. The results confirm that the proposed solutions provide lower energy consumption and lower number of packets exchanged than the conventional RPL solution, while maintaining fairness and the packet reception ratio high. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Routing in urban environment is a challenging task due to high mobility of vehicles in the network. Many existing routing protocols only consider density, link connectivity, delay, and shortest path information to send the data to the destination. In this paper, a routing protocol is proposed which uses the urban road network information such as multi-lane and flyover to send the data to the destination with a minimum packet forwarding delay. The next path for data forwarding is selected based on a path value calculated by the Road Side Unit for each path connected to a junction. This protocol uses Ground Vehicle to Ground Vehicle (GV2GV) communication, Flyover Vehicle to Flyover Vehicle (FV2FV) communication, and Flyover Vehicle to Ground Vehicle/Ground Vehicle to Flyover Vehicle (FV2GV/GV2FV) communication to enhance the routing performance. Simulation results show that proposed protocol performs better than P-GEDIR, GyTAR, A-STAR, and GSR routing protocols in terms of end-to-end delay, number of network gaps, and number of hops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mobile adhoc network is dynamic in nature and it operates completely in an infrastructure-less environment. It discovers the way routes dynamically to reach the destination. Securing a dynamic way route, which is not known before establishing communication, is always a challenge in the mobile ad hoc network. Most of the existing secure routing protocols target to evade specific type of attacks or malicious behaviour of the nodes or networks. We propose a novel secure way routing protocol for securing the dynamic way routes in MANET. It provides a unique session key for each route to secure the data communication. Moreover, it authenticates the data packets using asymmetric cryptography and secures the routing field message using two-way asymmetric cryptography. The proposal is implemented and tested for assessing the protocol's performance. We have also compared the protocol with the other secure routing protocols for evaluating its performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To move packets among the vehicles mobility pattern of vehicles in a vehicular network performs an imperative factor for creating competent routing protocol. To reproduce the movement features of vehicles in VANET is the main purpose of the mobility model. Manhattan mobility model is conversed by a lot of researchers. Merely very limited research study is prepared on highway and freeway mobility models. In this document Cluster scheme, different routing protocols are used to the freeway mobility based vehicular architecture. The Ns2.34 simulation effect illustrates the effort of cluster scheme over different protocols and standard 802.11p. The competence of the routing protocols in the vehicular communication by means of freeway movement pattern is estimated by different network parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quality of service (QoS) in wireless mesh networks is an active area of research, which is driven by the increasing demand for real-time and multimedia applications, such as Voice over IP and Video on Demand. In this paper, we propose a novel QoS based routing protocol for wireless mesh infrastructure, called Hybrid QoS Mesh Routing (HQMR). It is composed of two QoS based routing sub-protocols: a reactive multi-metric routing protocol for intra-infrastructure communications and a proactive multi-tree based routing protocol for communications with external networks. The proposed routing protocol enables forwarding real-time and streaming applications with QoS guarantee in a mesh wireless environment, by assigning a specific routing path for each defined service class. To this end, three different QoS service classes are defined, depending on the applications requirements. We analyze in this paper the simulation results of different scenarios conducted on the network simulator ns-3 to demonstrate the effectiveness of the HQMR protocol and to compare it to other routing protocols while forwarding real-time applications with QoS guarantee. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the characteristics of mobile ad hoc networks, such networks are more susceptible to the destruction of malicious attacks or denial of cooperation. It would be easy for an adversary or a malicious node to launch attacks on routing function, especially attacks on packet routing. In order to mitigate these hazards, we incorporate the concept of 'trust' into MANETs, and abstract a decentralized trust inference model. The core of this model is trust computation, which is divided into two parts: historical trust assessment and trust prediction. We can quantify a node's historical trust based on its historical behaviors via introducing multiple trust attributes. The fuzzy AHP method based on entropy weights is used to calculate the weight of trust attributes. By making use of the obtained historical trust data sequence, we propose an improved dynamic grey-Markov chain prediction measure to effectively estimate node's trust prediction. In order to verify the validity of our trust model, we propose a trust-enhanced unicast routing protocol and a trust-enhanced multicast routing protocol, respectively. Both of the two new protocols can provide a feasible approach to kick out the untrustworthy nodes and choose the optimal trusted routing path. Moreover, the new proposed data-driven route maintenance mechanisms can reduce the routing overhead. The persuasive experiments have been conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the new proposed trust-enhanced routing protocols in the aspects of packets delivery ratio, end-to-end latency, malicious node detection and attack resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For ZigBee Cluster-Tree routing protocol in the power system applications existing not optimal routing and not real-time problems, the actual demand from on-line monitoring power quality of substation point of view, considering hops, link busy status and the residual energy, a ZigBee Cluster-Tree improved routing algorithm is proposed, calculating the hops of all neighbor nodes to the destination node and introducing an alternative node. Several NS2.34 simulation experiments show that the improved routing optimization algorithm reduces the number of hops and end to end delay, improves power quality monitoring in real time, saves overall network energy consumption, and prolongs the network life cycle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A mobile ad hoc network is a collection of wireless mobile nodes creating a network without using any existing infrastructure. Much research has been carried out to find out an optimal routing protocol for the successful transmission of data in this network. The main hindrance is the mobility of the network. If the mobility pattern of the network can be predicted, it will help in improving the QoS of the network. This paper discusses a novel approach to mobility prediction using movement history and existing concepts of genetic algorithms, to improve the MANET routing algorithms. The proposed lightweight genetic algorithm performs outlier removal on the basis of heuristics and parent selection using the weighted roulette wheel algorithm. After performing the genetic operations a node to node adjacency matrix is obtained from which the predicted direction of each node is calculated using force directed graphs and vector calculations. The technique proposes a new approach to mobility prediction which does not depend on probabilistic methods and which is completely based on genetic algorithms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ad Hoc network is a temporal network which is managed by autonomous nodes which have the ability to communicate with each other without having fixed network infrastructure or any central base station. Due to some reasons such as dynamic changes of the network topology, trusting the nodes to each other, lack of fixed substructure for the analysis of nodes' behaviours and loss of specific offensive lines, this type of networks is not supportive against malicious nodes' attacks. One of these attacks is black hole attack. In this attack, the malicious nodes absorb data packets and destroy them. Thus, it is essential to present an algorithm against the black hole attacks. This article suggests a new algorithm which enhances the security of AODV routing protocol to encounter the black hole attacks. This algorithm tries to identify malicious nodes according to nodes' behaviours in an Ad Hoc network and delete them from routing. The suggested algorithm is simulated by NS2. The simulation results show some improvements in end-to-end delay and packet delivery rate in the suggested algorithm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the promising application of collecting information from remote or inaccessible location, wireless sensor networks pose big challenge for data routing to maximize the communication with more energy efficient. Literature presents different cluster-based energy aware routing protocol for maximizing the life time of sensor nodes. Accordingly, an energy efficient clustering mechanism, based on artificial bee colony algorithm and factional calculus is proposed in this paper to maximize the network energy and life time of nodes by optimally selecting cluster-head. The hybrid optimization algorithm called, multi-objective fractional artificial bee colony is developed to control the convergence rate of ABC with the newly designed fitness function which considered three objectives like, energy consumption, distance travelled and delays to minimize the overall objective. The performance of the proposed FABC-based cluster head selection is compared with LEACH, PSO and ABC-based routing using life time, and energy. The results proved that the proposed FABC maximizes the energy as well as life time of nodes as compared with existing protocols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive radio sensor network (CRSN) is an intelligent and reasonable combination of cognitive radio technology and wireless sensor networks. It poses significant challenges to the design of topology maintenance techniques due to dynamic primary-user activities, which in turn decreases the data delivery performance of the network as well as it's lifetime. This paper aims to provide a solution to the CRSN clustering and routing problem using an energy aware event-driven routing protocol (ERP) for CRSN. Upon detection of an event, the ERP determines eligible nodes for clustering according to local positions of CRSN nodes between the event and the sink and their residual energy levels. Cluster-heads are selected from the eligible nodes according to their residual energy values, available channels, neighbors and distance to the sink. In ERP, cluster formation is based on relative spectrum awareness such that channels with lower primary user appearance probability are selected as common data channels for clusters. For data routing, ERP employs hop-by-hop data forwarding approach through the CHs and primary/secondary gateways towards the sink. Through extensive simulations, we demonstrate that the proposed ERP provides with better network performances compared to those of the state-of-the-art protocols under a dynamic spectrum-aware data transmission environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vehicular ad-hoc network (VANET) is becoming a promising technology for improving the efficiency and the safety of intelligent transportation systems by deploying a wide variety of applications. Smart vehicles are expected to continuously exchange a huge amount of data either through safety or non-safety messages dedicated for road safety or infotainment and passenger comfort applications, respectively. One of the main challenges posed by the study of VANET is the data dissemination design by which messages have to be efficiently disseminated in a high vehicular speed, intermittent connectivity, and highly dynamic topology. In particular, broadcast mechanism should guarantee fast and reliable data delivery within a limited wireless bandwidth in order to fit the real time applications' requirements. In this work, we propose a simple and efficient adaptive data dissemination protocol called 'SEAD'. On the one hand, the originality of this work lies in its simplicity and efficiency regardless the application's type. Simplicity is achieved through a beaconless strategy adopted to take into account the surrounding vehicles' density. Thanks to a metric locally measured, each vehicle is able to dynamically define an appropriate probability of rebroadcast to mitigate the broadcast storm problem. Efficiency is manifested by reducing excessive retransmitted messages and hence promoting the network capacity and the transmission delay. The simulation results show that the proposed protocol offers very low packet drop ratio and network load while still maintaining a low end-to-end delay and a high packet delivery. On the other hand, SEAD protocol presents a robust data dissemination mechanism which is suitable either for safety applications or for other kinds of application. This mechanism is able to adapt the protocol performance in terms of packet delivery ratio to the application's requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless sensor networks (WSN), as a new type of environment monitoring system, has became a hot research topic in recent years. This paper mainly focuses on the problem of signal conflicting in WSN. The link quality (quality between two neighboring nodes) can be guaranteed by the layout of network, but, the end-to-end routing quality can not be guaranteed in the same way because of random signal conflicting (even if CSMA/CA is used in WSN). The end-to-end routing will have higher performance if the routing has lower signal conflicting probability. So, the main work of this paper is designing a routing protocol to find out the routing with the lowest signal conflicting probability. This paper proposed a Minimum conflicting probability routing protocol (MCR) in link quality guaranteed WSN. Firstly, MCR combines the degree value with workload of nodes, forming a new degree and cache based routing metric (DBM). Secondly, MCR finds out the best routing by the Random Walk theory on basis of DBM. The simulation results show that, MCR protocol is more effective to avoid the signal conflicting, it has a higher end-to-end reliability and a more stable network throughput than other routing protocols in the same link quality guaranteed WSN. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mobile ad hoc multipath routing protocols have attracted considerable research attention over the past decade, but the limited battery life of nodes remains a significant obstacle. Many researchers have designed multipath routing protocols that balance the data load between the generated paths, but there is always some tradeoff between conserving the nodes' energy and delivering data. In this paper, I introduce a load balancing (LB) multipath routing protocol based on maximal minimal nodal residual energy (MMRE) in the ad hoc on-demand multipath distance vector (AOMDV) protocol. The proposed LBMMRE-AOMDV protocol evaluates the generated paths based on the maximal nodal residual energy and the actual number of packets that could be transmitted over that path without depleting the nodes' energy. The performance of the proposed protocol was tested and evaluated using different scenarios and performance metrics, and achieved good results compared with MMRE-AOMDV and AOMDV. In particular, the proposed method can increase packet delivery and decrease the number of dead nodes, thus reducing the probability of network portioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Routing in Vehicular Ad hoc Network (VANET) is a challenging task due to high mobility of vehicles. In this paper, a RVCloud routing protocol is proposed for VANET to send the data efficiently to the destination vehicle using cloud computing technology. In this protocol, vehicle beacon information is send to the cloud storage through the Road Side Unit (RSU). As vehicles have less storage and computing facility, the information of all the vehicles moving in the city is maintained by the cloud. Source vehicle sends the data to the destination by sending the data to the nearby RSU. After receiving the data, RSU sends a request to the cloud for an optimal RSU information, that takes minimum packet forwarding delay to send the data to the destination. Cloud provides location service by providing destination location and optimal RSU information. Then RSU sends the data to the optimal RSU using internet. By using the internet facility, packet forwarding delay and link disruption problem are reduced. Simulation results show that, RVCloud performs better than VehiCloud, P-GEDIR, GyTAR, A-STAR, and GSR routing protocols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Opportunistic routing is a promising research area in the context of wireless network communications. Security and trustworthy of routing in this field, however, needs to be considerably researched . In this paper, a novel trust establishment algorithm is proposed, designed, and implemented specifically for opportunistic routing protocols which benefits from direct interactions between wireless nodes. The proposed trust model benefits from a novel watchdog mechanism considering not only forwarding behaviour of nodes but also the quality of links between them. Furthermore, three different metrics for next hop selection is introduced enabling nodes to select their next hop forwarders more sophisticatedly using quality of links, geographical location of nodes, and their trust level. Extensive simulation results represent that proposed model can significantly improve the performance of network communications when malicious nodes try to collapse the system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For effective routing in wireless mesh networks, we proposed a routing metric, expected path throughput (EPT), and a routing protocol, expected path throughput routing protocol (EPTR), to maximize the network throughput . The routing metric EPT is based on the estimated available bandwidth of the routing path, considering the link quality, the inter- and intra-flow interference and the path length. To calculate the EPT of a routing path, we first calculate the expected bandwidth of the link and the clique, and then consider the decay caused by the path length. Based on EPT, a distributed routing protocol EPTR is proposed, aiming to balance the network load and maximize the network throughput. Extensive simulations are conducted to evaluate the performance of the proposed solution. The results show that the proposed EPTR can effectively balance the network load, achieve high network throughput, and out-perform the existing routing protocols with the routing metrics previously proposed for wireless mesh networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the battery limitations, energy-efficient routing is one of the most important issues in WSNs. In this paper, a novel distributed clustering routing protocol (NODIC) is proposed. The algorithm makes three main contributions to literature. Firstly, a time-sharing approach for CH election is suggested differently from the studies in literature. The most effective parameters are combined in a time-sharing approach on the purpose of gaining the highest performance. Secondly, easy implementation and self-reliant decision of probabilistic schemes and the guarantee that iterative schemes issue about selecting the desired CHs are pieced together without using any of them. Finally, since CH decision is performed locally and dynamically, the clusters can make their decisions independently from the others. NODIC is compared with three common corresponding approaches in literature for various values of the number of nodes and under different traffic distributions. The algorithms are evaluated by using the number of living nodes and total energy consumptions per round. The results show that NODIC performs considerably better than the other approaches for all number of nodes and under all distributions up to 79 %. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multicast communication of mobile ad hoc networks (MANET), rather than multiple unicast communication, delivers common content to more than one receiver at a time. Due to cutting-edge communication technology and advancements in terms of radio-mounted devices, groups in front-end war field, as well as rescue troops, are well connected to carry out their missions using multicast communication. The key to the success of military networks in a hostile environment is security and collaboration. Internal attacks are major threats to impose a great failure in their mission goal. We introduce a novel indirect internal stealthy attack and known direct internal stealthy attacks such as black hole and deny-to-forward attacks on tree-based multicast routing protocol. These internal attacks can induce the performance degradation in the multicast group. We design a distributed cross-layer based machine learning anomaly detection system for multicast communication of MANET. Using efficient multilayer features, rather than routing layer features alone, improve the accuracy of the Intrusion Detection System (IDS) in terms of detection of direct and indirect internal stealthy attacks. We evaluate the sensitivity, specificity and detection accuracy of well-known multiclass classifiers in combination with various feature subset selection algorithms. Since our problem with classification is a multiclass, the performance metrics calculated here are different from the binary classifiers. Our IDS is efficient, with respect to high true positives, very low false positives and less resource consumption even in the very challenging conditions of multicast communication of ad hoc networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Network architecture based on opportunistic Delay Tolerant Network (DTN) is best applicable for post-disaster scenarios, where the controlling point of relief work is any fixed point like a local school building or a hospital, whose location is known to everyone. In this work, 4-tier network architecture for post-disaster relief and situation analysis is proposed. The disaster struck area has been divided into clusters known as Shelter Points (SP). The architecture consists of mobile Relief Workers (RW) at tier 1, Throw boxes (TB) at tier 2 placed at fixed locations within SPs. Data Mules (DM) like vehicles, boats, etc. operate at tier 3 that provide inter-SP connectivity. Master Control Station (MCS) is placed at tier 4. The RWs are provided with smart-phones that act as mobile nodes. The mobile nodes collect information from the disaster incident area and send that information to the TB of its SP, using DTN as the communication technology. The messages are then forwarded to the MCS via the DMs. Based on this architecture, a novel DTN routing protocol is proposed. The routing strategy works by tracking recent direction of movement of mobile nodes by measuring their consecutive distances from the destination at two different instants. If any node moves away from the destination, then it is very unlikely to carry its messages towards the destination. For a node, the fittest node among all its neighbours is selected as the next hop. The fittest node is selected using parameters like past history of successful delivery and delivery latency, current direction of movement and node's recent proximity to the destination. Issues related to routing such as fitness of a node for message delivery, buffer management, packet drop and node energy have been considered. The routing protocol has been implemented in the Opportunistic Networks Environment (ONE) simulator with customized mobility models. It is compared with existing standard DTN routing protocols for efficiency. It is found to reduce message delivery latency and improve message delivery ratio by incurring a small overhead . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper a new protocol using fuzzy logic control has been proposed. The protocol is based on Stable Election Protocol (SEP). Fuzzy logic control based on three variables, distance of nodes form base station, density of nodes and the battery level of nodes along with the traditional threshold values used in SEP are used to enhance the process of cluster head election in the existing SEP protocol and improve the lifetime and throughput of the Wireless Sensor Network. The result of the simulation which has been done in MATLAB simulator indicates that Stable Election Protocol based on fuzzy logic is more energy efficient and improves the lifetime and throughput of the network by 73.2 and 68.54 % respectively comparing with the existing SEP protocol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Battery power is a critical resource of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). Therefore, an effective operation of WSNs depend upon the efficient use of its battery resource. Cluster based routing protocols are proven to be more energy efficient as compared to other routing protocols. Most of the cluster based routing protocols, especially Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) protocol, follows Dynamic, Distributed and Randomized (DDR) algorithm for clustering. Due to the randomness present in clustering algorithms, number of cluster heads generated varies highly from the optimal count. In this paper, we present an approach which attempts to control the randomness present in LEACH's clustering algorithm. This approach makes the cluster head count stable. NS-2 simulation results show that proposed approach improved the First Node Death (FND) time and Last Node Death (LND) time by 21 and 24 % over LEACH, 10 and 20 % as compared to Advance LEACH (ALEACH) and 5 and 35 % over LEACH with Deterministic Cluster Head Selection (LEACH-DCHS) respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High node mobility and infrequent connectivity in delay tolerant networks (DTNs) makes it challenging to implement traditional security algorithms for detecting malicious nodes. In DTN, most of the routing algorithms are based on the announcement of routing metrics like probability of delivery, contact strength or social group strength by the nodes in contact. Blackhole in DTN exploits these characteristics of routing protocols and either announces a high value of these metrics or tries to attain a high value for them by following fast, repeated movement patterns. Dynamic social grouping (DSG) based routing algorithm shows that social behavior of nodes helps to make better forwarding decisions and to achieve highest message delivery ratio amongst other existing routing algorithms. We examine the impact of blackholes, intermittent blackholes and tailgating attack on DSG. We propose a suit of three solutions. Our first solution detects blackholes and tailgating malicious nodes in the network, however, is not suitable for intermittent blackholes. Second solution handles intermittent blackholes and performs well when the nodes are well connected. The third and final solution handles intermittent blackholes in sparsely connected as well as in well-connected networks. In all proposed solutions, blackholes are not able to degrade the performance of the protocols by changing their geographical locations. We demonstrate through simulation that our protocols improve upon the message delivery ratio over the existing solutions. An appropriate protocol from the suit may be used depending upon an application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Along with the development of the technologies of various kinds, wireless sensor networks are gradually entering into the practicalization phase. Therefore, whether its performance is good or not will directly affect the use of WSNs. Routing is one of the most important technologies. In addition, the routing performance is a significant part of the evaluation index system of wireless sensor networks. Energy efficiency is focused on in the traditional routing protocols, while quality of service (QoS) (i.e., delay, reliability, robustness) becomes important in practical application. Routing protocols should not only ensure the energy efficiency, but also realize QoS performances. As a consequence how to achieve the equilibrium between energy efficiency and other performances is the issue to be solved. In this paper, some performance trade-off mechanisms and methods that have existed in the routing protocols of wireless sensor networks are analyzed and summarized. At the same time, the related technical features of the routing protocols are mentioned, the purpose of which is to provide a better understanding of the current research issues within the field of performance trade-off mechanisms and to guide the researcher to develop the routing protocols with better performance in order to fulfill the actual requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Routing protocols in vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) mainly depends on the correct information provided by the neighbor vehicles in the form of beacons. If the on board unit is soft faulty, it provides incorrect data and reduces the performance of the system. In this paper, a novel self soft fault detection based routing protocol is proposed for VANET in city environment to send the data quickly to the destination by detecting the soft faulty vehicles. The vehicle itself detects whether it is soft faulty or fault free by using the decisions made by the neighbor vehicles and exclude itself from the routing process. The data is forwarded through the fault free vehicles in a mostly connected path. The best path is selected at every junction by finding path values for the paths connected to the junction. The path with the minimum path value is selected as the next path through which the data is forwarded. The performance of the fault detection method is evaluated by fault detection rate and false alarm rate. Simulation results show that, proposed protocol performs better than GyTAR, A-STAR, P-GEDIR, and GSR routing protocols in terms of end-to-end delay, number of network gaps, and path length. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive radio ad hoc networks (CRAHNs) were developed to improve the utilization ratio of licensed spectrum. Since spectrum opportunities for users are varied over time and location, enhancing the spectrum effectiveness is a goal and also a challenge for CRAHNs. Besides, due to the energy limitation of the devices in CRAHNs, energy efficiency is another goal to be achieved. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to design a spectrum- and energy-efficient routing (SEER) protocol for CRAHNs, which improves transmission efficiency and balances energy consumption. The design of the protocol uses the techniques of expected transmission power, expected residual lifetime and utility indifference curves. The protocol will select the optimal route from all candidate paths. We present a performance comparison with two existing protocols for CARHNs: the minimum total transmission power (MTTP) and the min-max battery cost (MMBC) protocols. Simulation results show that SEER can reduce energy consumption by almost 40 % than that of MMBC, and increase network lifetime by almost 200 % than that of MTTP. Besides, SEER can improve the network throughput by at least 50 % and 150 % than that of MTTP and MMBC respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efficient bandwidth usage is vital for real-time ad hoc networking applications like vehicular safety. Yet, such applications can produce large amounts of identical data. Pruning redundant data transmissions can enable delivering richer data to more users at shorter intervals. Reducing redundancy has been studied extensively for stable network topologies but the solutions are not directly extensible to dynamic topologies where information about network state obsolesces quickly. We compare two novel combinations of the adaptive controlled flooding routing protocol, SBSD, with implementations of response aggregation and query filtering for mobile environments. We test these combinations in simulated vehicular networks. We show that, even in cases where response aggregation only slightly improves network performance, query filtering can improve delivery by up to 30 % and response time by 75 %. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a self-organizing network of mobile nodes which can form a dynamic topology. All the nodes generally have a limited transmission range and move freely throughout the network. So implementing a good routing protocol to react the link state changing is a critical issue in current research. From now on, a popular method is introducing a link quality evaluation (LQE) mechanism in routing algorithm. In this paper, we study the link quality evaluation scheme based on traffic-based metrics, such as packet reception ratio (PRR), and find two flaws (one is the assessment lagging and the other is the sample bias) which result in large handoff delay in routing protocols, especially when the PRR-like scheme is used in mobile environments. Therefore, we propose a link quality prediction (LQP) model to sense the link state by analyzing the Signal to Noise ratio of the neighbor link, and using grey theory to tackle the small sample size problem. Finally we set up mobile nodes test-bed to validate the scheme. Based on comparison of previous schemes, the LQP's performance is far better in handoff delay and packet loss rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless Sensor Networks are a set of sensor nodes capable of detecting, measuring, and reporting information about the environment. Many routing protocols have been developed for WSNs. A great attention has been given to geographic routing protocols which rely only on local knowledge of nodes to disseminate data towards the final destination. In this paper, we propose a new energy efficient geographic routing protocol called Energy-aware and delivery Guarantee Geographic Routing protocol (EGGR) for wireless sensor networks. The proposed protocol EGGR, manages energy resources of nodes efficiently during data communication in the network by introducing a mechanism that tries to forward packets towards the shortest path in terms of energy consumption while privileging nodes with greater remaining energy and avoiding holes in the network to guarantee packets delivery. The shortest path between the source and the destination is calculated based only on local knowledge of sensor nodes (neighborhood). Our experimental results show that the proposed protocol EGGR reduces energy consumption and increases delivery rate between sensor nodes and the base station compared with other protocols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mobile Ad hoc networks are characterized by a frequently changing in the network topology and the need of an efficient dynamic routing protocol. In this work, we have compared the performance of five ad hoc routing protocols against three different mobility models using NS-2 simulations, the simulated protocols are: AODV, OLSR, DSR, DSDV and ZRP. Furthermore, we examined the impact of traffic load, mobility and density of nodes on the behavior of these protocols. Then we introduced an algorithm for RREQ forwarding probability in order to improve AODV routing protocol performance (PAODV). The five protocols simulations results show that there is no protocol that outperforms all other protocols for all the evaluation criteria. As a result, each protocol has different performance behavior with respect to the considered metrics, including the routing overhead, packets delivery ratio, end-to-end average delay, and average throughput. PAODV simulation results reveal that our proposed algorithm mitigates more network collision and contention, so as to increase the packet delivery ratio and throughput. It eventually decreases the average end-to-end delay, the routing overhead and hence enhances the performance of the on-demand routing protocols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Opportunistic networks are challenged wireless networks of handheld mobile devices that use contact opportunities to allow users to communicate without network infrastructure.The highly dynamic nature of these networks requires efficient forwarding mechanisms as disconnections are frequent and an end-to-end communication paradigm is not applicable. Consequently, many existing routing protocols for opportunistic networks make use of social behavior characteristics to perform hop-by-hop routing and select an appropriate relay node. Social network information is commonly extracted from encounters detected between mobile devices. However, Internet added online social interaction techniques which reflect user's online behavior and are not based on physical meetings. In this paper we present a social-based forwarding strategy for opportunistic networks that exploits both offline and online user's social network information. By proposing a model of dynamic online social network that uses information extracted from offline and online user behavior, we show that routing centrality metrics combining node centrality extracted from the dynamic online social network and centrality extracted from the social network detected through encounters between mobile devices are able to improve delivery ratio and even reduce the number of message replicas to be injected into the network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]