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Based on eleven different kinds of romanized dialect records, this paper conducts a phonological study of the Chaoshan dialects in the nineteenth century. It compares the differences between the romanized records and the various dialects spoken in the Chaoshan area, analyses the phonological features and their notational representations, and concludes that the phonological system of the records was a system based on the dialect of the city of Chaozhou. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditionally, the Chinese viewed all foreigners as inferior and uncivilized barbarians, concept that was formulated almost two thousand years ago. The Manchu, who established the Qing dynasty, likewise looked at the Westerners in the same manner when they first encountered them. This caused a lot of diplomatic issues. It was not until the second defeat on the Chinese side by the British in 1860 that the Qing rulers agreed to write into the peace treaty that they would not use the term "barbarians" to refer to the Westerners. However, it took several decades more before the average Chinese fully recognized that there were things to learn from the West. One question they often raised with their teeth gnashing was: "Why should we learn from the barbarians?" The present paper takes up cases of several officials and thinkers in their attempts to urge the introduction of Western ideas through translation in the 1840s-1860s. It demonstrates how the traditional Chinese view towards the foreigners has been a determining factor in the translation of Western works. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]