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Why do some students learn more in some schools than others? One consideration receiving growing attention is school management. To study this, researchers need to be able to measure school management accurately and cheaply at scale, and also explain any observed relationship between school management and student learning. This paper introduces a new approach to measurement using existing public data, and applies it to build a management index covering 15,000 schools across 65 countries, and another index covering nearly all public schools in Brazil. Both indices show a strong, positive relationship between school management and student learning. The paper then develops a simple model that formalizes the intuition that strong management practices might be driving learning gains via incentive and selection effects among teachers, students and parents. The paper shows that the predictions of this model hold in public data for Latin America, and draws out implications for policy.

In the past decade, hundreds of impact evaluation studies have measured the learning outcomes of education interventions in developing countries. The impact magnitudes are often reported in terms of "standard deviations," making them difficult to communicate to policy makers beyond education specialists. This paper proposes two approaches to demonstrate the effectiveness of learning interventions, one in "equivalent years of schooling" and another in the net present value of potential increased lifetime earnings. The results show that in a sample of low- and middle-income countries, one standard deviation gain in literacy skill is associated with between 4.7 and 6.8 additional years of schooling, depending on the estimation method. In other words, over the course of a business-as-usual school year, students learn between 0.15 and 0.21 standard deviation of literacy ability. Using that metric to translate the impact of interventions, a median structured pedagogy intervention increases learning by the equivalent of between 0.6 and 0.9 year of business-as-usual schooling. The results further show that even modest gains in standard deviations of learning--if sustained over time--may have sizeable impacts on individual earnings and poverty reduction, and that conversion into a non-education metric should help policy makers and non-specialists better understand the potential benefits of increased learning. [This paper is a product of the Office of the Chief Economist, Africa Region and the World Development Report 2018 Team.]

In 2015, for the first time in its history, PISA (the Programme for International Student Assessment) asked teachers to describe the various aspects of their working environment and teaching practices. This paper examines how teacher, student, and school characteristics are related to science teachers' satisfaction in 19 PISA-participating countries and economies. The findings show that the most satisfied science teachers tend to be those who are initially motivated to become teachers. The results also highlight the positive relationship between science teachers' satisfaction and teacher collaboration, good disciplinary climate in science classes, availability of school resources, and the opportunity to participate in professional-development activities.

This paper assesses progress made in elementary education in Latin America from 1990-2000. Besides examining completion rates, it looks at four critical indicators: the extent to which repetition rates have declined over the decade; the extent of timely access and on-time ages of elementary school students; the level or elementary school students' learning achievement; and changes in expenditures and other inputs into elementary education. The paper focuses on four countries (Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, and Honduras), which represent a wide spectrum of education conditions in the region. It uses data collected from a variety of sources, with the main criterion being reliable observations from 1999-2000. Results indicate that overall, the region has made progress in elementary education. More children complete their elementary schooling. They are also more likely to begin their schooling at appropriate ages, and they are less likely to repeat a grade. Most countries have increased their investments in education. However, 18 percent of children in the region do not complete 6 years of elementary education, and 16 percent repeat a grade. Progress in terms of learning has been slow or nonexistent. (Contains 29 bibliographic references.) (SM)

This combination report/guide summarizes practical "how-to" information on the development and operation of national training boards that was gathered in a series of case studies of the effectiveness of national training boards in Canada, Singapore, Sweden, and the United Kingdom and in studies of training boards in Australia, Brazil, Colombia, Germany, and South Africa. The introductory chapter describes the research on which the guide is based, discusses common themes affecting the quality of training in the countries studied, and examines the rationale for training programs. Chapter 2 summarizes the subsequent discussion of the effectiveness of national training boards in the form of a checklist and guidelines for use by countries considering establishing a national training board. Chapters 3-9 synthesize research findings into practical recommendations dealing with the following aspects of initiating and operating national training boards: enabling legislation, training board composition, training board structure, financial resources, delivery of training, institutional planning and operations, and testing and certification. Chapters 10 and 11, which are more analytical than the chapters preceding them, examine the perception and images of national training boards and lessons learned from the case studies. Contains 59 references. (MN)

The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. Breaking the inter-generational transmission of poverty requires far-reaching actions in the education sector. Widespread poverty affects both students' performance and their availability to attend school. Low-quality education leads to low income, which in turn perpetuates poverty. Furthermore, low levels of education affect growth though low labor productivity. Although Paraiba, Brazil suffers from a history of educational neglect, the state has recently made significant gains in primary enrollment; 93 percent of the children aged 7-14 are enrolled in school. However, 30 percent of the population aged 15 and older are illiterate and, unfortunately, it is not only the older generations that cannot read and write: 15 percent of children aged 10 to 15 are illiterate. However, substantial achievements in education have not helped the extremely poor segment of population as much as expected. Probit analyses reveal that education attainment is the single most important poverty-reducing factor. All levels of education from primary to tertiary are significant and negatively associated with the probability of being poor. Appended tables contain Poverty Indices and Inequality Measures based on PNAD 1981-99. (Contains 23 tables, 8 figures, 2 boxes, and 12 footnotes.) [This paper was produced by World Bank Publications.]

This paper examines the context of critical reading and considers how it can best be taught. The paper also includes some reflections on the current "state of the art" in critical reading in an English for Special Purposes (ESP) or English as a Second Language (ESL) context. The paper details a series of attempts to develop a set of questions that can be used in teaching critical reading, and introduces "set theory" (a math concept) to ESP. The paper suggests six steps for the use of set theory in the teaching of reading, as well as a set of questions which systematize and break down some sub-skills in critical reading: (1) comprehension questions; (2) readership questions; (3) reader's appreciation; (4) text applicability; and (5) text or writer questions. The paper argues that: critical reading is an essential part of the genuine response to text; there is a need for teachable techniques for helping readers to learn how to react critically to texts; critical reading can and usually should be done on all text types, from poems to telephone directories; and critical reading is applicable not only to a detailed level of comprehension but also to general and to main points comprehension. (Three figures of data are included; a list of "Dishonest Tricks," 9 notes, and 17 references are attached.) (RAE)

Ways in which language teachers can formally investigate the teaching and learning processes occurring in their classrooms are discussed in four sections. The topics covered include: the concept of research , its variety of meanings, and the prestige associated with it; the classroom teacher's traditional role with regard to research and how that role can or should change; techniques for organizing and carrying out classroom research projects; research projects carried out by Brazilian teachers of English as a second language and English for special purposes; and research projects that are potentially motivating and manageable. (MSE)

This paper describes student difficulties in first-year calculus classes and suggests some instructional strategies to address these difficulties. Participants in this study were 200 low socio-economic background freshmen majoring in business in Brazil. Results show that the main difficulties are related to lack of understanding of algebraic notation and graphs, lack of understanding of continuum, inability to interpret word problems, and confusion caused by the usual meaning of a word when its mathematical meaning is different. To overcome these difficulties, suggested initial strategies include explaining the idea of the coordinate plane and ordered pairs, helping students understand variables and graphing, teaching about mathematical modeling, and using appropriate textbooks in teaching the graphic aspect of concepts and algebraic notation. The paper includes several illustrated examples of problems together with teaching notes. (KHR)

This report presents data on peer-reviewed S&E journals and conference proceedings reflecting the rapidly expanding volume of research activity, the involvement and scientific capabilities different countries, and the expanding research ecosystem demonstrated through international collaborations. Publication output grew about 4% annually over the past 10 years. China and India grew more than the world average, while the United States and European Union grew less than the world average. Research papers from the United States and EU countries had higher impact scores. International collaborations have increased over the past 10 years. [SRI International, Center for Innovation Strategy and Policy assisted with report preparation.]

This document consists of 16 papers on aspects of Brazilian culture, history, and geography prepared by participants in the Fulbright Hays Seminars Abroad Program in Brazil in 1993. The papers are: (1) "Cordel Literature: A Window on the History and Culture of Brazil" (Juan Barroso VIII); (2) "Connections: Public Images of Indians and Brazil's Indian Policy" (Jan Lee Brookes); (3) "Black Women in Brazil" (Martha H. Brown); (4) "Urban Squares in Brazil: A Typology" (James R. Curtis); (5) "Brazil: Seeds of Change, the Afro-Brazilian Experience" (Billie A. Day); (6) "Brazil: An Introductory Unit for High School Students" (Margaret T. Harris); (7) "Education in Brazil: Some Issues on Reform" (Samuel Hinton); (8) "Is There a Brazil?" (Charles E. Holt, Jr.); (9) "Environmental Impact Assessment: A Comparative Analysis of Methodologic Techniques in the United States and Brazil" (Stephanie B. Kelly); (10) "The Social Aspect of Vending in Brazil" (Sunil Kukreja); (11) "Just Picture Brazil" (John D. Nielson); (12) "Contemporary Brazil Through Slides" (Thomas M. Orf); (13) "Cultural Ecology in Brazil: A Proposal to Integrate Thinking about the Fine Arts" (Donald C. Stowell, Jr.); (14) "Brazil Journal: Independent Study Project" (Arline R. Thorn); (15) "A Pictorial Look at Brazilian Correctional Facilities" (Susan S. Tomlin); and (16) "Coping with Superinflation: Observations and Strategies of Middle Class Brazilians" (Terry C. Ulion). (DK)

The objective of this paper is to give indications to a curriculum designed to prepare teachers for the next decade, the results presented here were based on a research project entitled "The Teacher and the Cultural Dimensions of School Knowledge" and aiming at analyzing teachers' conceptions about the diversity in group planning and its consequences on the didactic organization of teaching work. Methodology: Data was collected using 127 questionnaires and 20 interviews applied to a group of elementary schools teachers working at the public system in the city of Rio de Janeiro while attending an undergraduate Education course at a public University. It is also important to mention that the constructivist approach is dominant in this course and in the curriculum of the public schools where these teachers teach. Results: The schoolteachers investigated were all female and had the following characteristics: 73% were born in the city of Rio de Janeiro, 7% at the rural area of the State, and 20% outside the State of Rio de Janeiro. Data about the family background of these teachers, including their husband's professions showed they come from families with very little formal education. Concerning their teaching practice, 68% of the teachers have a 1-to-10-year range in experience. Most teachers who were investigated in this research, regarded the idea of organizing pedagogical work according to the heterogeneity of the group as positive in relation to the students' interaction in the classroom, but they remarked that they had difficulty in incorporating this into their pedagogical work, since the school planning aiming at directing the pedagogical work to more homogeneous patterns was regarded as the easiest to implement and to achieve their goals. Conclusions & Recommendations: Our analysis indicated three aspects to be developed based on our research findings: to emphasize the political aspect of education; to establish new forms of partnership with schools critical teachers developing successful practices; and to put into practice, during the University courses, new ways of dealing with diversity. (Contains 2 tables and 1 endnote.)

The report presents results of two seminars, held in Miami (Florida) and Cambridge (England), in which representatives of two groups, The European Association for International Education and the National Association for Foreign Student Affairs: Association of International Educators, met for intensive discussion of the methods for and design of research on foreign educational systems. This inquiry emerged from the need to improve credential evaluation for admission, placement, and transfer of students across systems. The first seminar focused on content needed in a monograph describing a country's educational system, and resulted in a generic model outline or table of contents, which was tested and refined using the examples of Brazil, Chile, and Mexico. The second seminar group tested the model outline further against Ghana and South Africa, and continued to discuss and develop a generic model for planning and executing a research project, from problem identification to production of the monograph. The model outline and recommended research strategies are presented here, with notes on adaptations for projects in the five countries noted. Appended materials include a worksheet for gathering information, background papers on research methods, designs, and strategies, participant reports and observations, and a list of seminar participants. (MSE)

Accounts of achievements in early childhood care and education in developing countries supplement a discussion of optimal programming. The document begins with background information on problems in educational provision and a rationale for a national focus on early education. Discussion then turns to: (1) parents as prime educators; (2) involvement of the community; (3) program replication; (4) development of partnerships between parents and the community; (5) new ways of working for governments, service agencies, and educators; (6) governmental roles; and (7) community development in action. Supplementary profiles detail benefits of early childhood care and education in Colombia, community involvement in Nigeria, community ownership of schools in Kenya, an early childhood and community project in Arab communities in Israel, Alabama's Federation of Child Care Centers' peer education project on countering negative racial scripting, the Bristol Child Development Project in England and Wales, France's Schools Without Frontiers preschool program in the Chian Kham refugee camp in Thailand, the development of "little schools" and teacher training programs in Mozambique, and the development of a preschool program with health and community action components in rural Brazil. Newsletters, occasional papers, seminar reports, books, videos, and publications in Portuguese and Spanish are announced. (RH)

This paper reports that between 2008 and 2009, unemployment rates across OECD countries increased among people at all educational levels, but rose to especially troubling heights among people without an upper secondary education. In 2009, the average employment rate across OECD countries was much higher for individuals with a tertiary (i.e. higher) education--indicating a better match between the skills these people have and the skills the labour market required. Between 2008 and 2009, the earnings advantage for people with a tertiary education remained strong in OECD countries. In some countries, earnings inequality between people with a tertiary education and those without an upper secondary education widened even further.

This essay presents background information and suggests teaching stragegies to aid community and junior college classroom teachers of history and civilization as they develop and implement educational programs on Latin American music. It is based on the premise that Latin American music can best be understood as a reflection of other historical and cultural themes. Emphasis is placed on the music of Mexico, Brazil, and Colombia. The document is presented in six chapters. Chapter one introduces the document, identifies objectives, and presents information on major influences of Latin America's musical heritage, including indigenous, Iberian, and African. Chapters two, three, and four focus on the music of Mexico, Brazil, and Colombia, respectively. For each country, information is organized around six themes--(1) ethnic variety and fusion, (2) regionalism, (3) cultural imperialism and imitativeness, (4) nationalism, (5) protest and revolution, and (6) urbanization and cultural standardization. Titles and themes of various types of music are interwoven throughout the narrative. A brief introductory section for each of these three chapters relates the folk, popular, and art music traditions of each country to Latin American music at various times throughout history. Chapter five offers additional suggestions on relating music to nationalistic and social action themes in other Latin American nations. Chapter six suggests teaching methods, including playing musical selections in class, asking students to identify various rhythmic and stylistic differences, and directing students to identify traditional motifs while listening to nationalistic music. The document concludes with a bibliography and a discography. (DB)

This paper profiles representative Afro-Brazilian writers and provides a guide to English language translations and critical studies of their work. The aim is to encourage instructors to broaden the scope of current curricula in black and Latin American studies courses. Recent studies estimate that more than 40 percent of Brazil's inhabitants are of African descent, and blacks are a substantial literary force in Brazil. Following an introduction which cites various works on blacks in Brazilian civilization, biographical sketches of six authors are presented, each of which includes listings of English translations and biographical/critical sources. The authors presented are: Afonso Henrique de Lima Barreto; Antonio Goncalves Dias; Antonio Frederico de Castro Alves; Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis; Joao da Cruz e Sousa; and Mario Raul de Morais Andrade. (CG)