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Immunological memory can be regarded as the key aspect of adaptive immunity, i.e. a specific response to first contact with an antigen, which in mammals is determined by the properties of T, B and NK cells. Re-exposure to the same antigen results in a more rapid response of the activated specific cells, which have a unique property that is the immunological memory acquired upon first contact with the antigen. Such a state of immune activity is also to be understood as related to "altered behavior of the immune system" due to genetic alterations, presumably maintained independently of the antigen. It also indicates a possible alternative mechanism of maintaining the immune state at a low level of the immune response, "directed" by an antigen or dependent on an antigen, associated with repeated exposure to the same antigen from time to time, as well as the concept of innate immune memory, associated with epigenetic reprogramming of myeloid cells, i.e. macrophages and NK cells. Studies on Teleostei have provided evidence for the presence of immunological memory determined by T and B cells and a secondary response stronger than the primary response. Research has also demonstrated that in these animals macrophages and NK-like cells (similar to mammalian NK cells) are able to respond when re-exposed to the same antigen. Regardless of previous reports on immunological memory in teleost fish, many reactions and mechanisms related to this ability require further investigation. The very nature of immunological memory and the activity of cells involved in this process, in particular macrophages and NK-like cells, need to be explained. This paper presents problems associated with adaptive and innate immune memory in teleost fish and characteristics of cells associated with this ability. • The presence of adaptive and innate immune memory has been confirmed in fish. • Adaptive immune memory in fish develops with the participation of T and B lymphocytes. • Innate immune memory is related to the properties of macrophages and NK-like cells. • There is a need to further verify the biological basis of this property. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• In this paper, by reviewing MC phagocytic function, activated MC expression of APC surface markers, and MC participation in the inflammatory response and local renal immune response, we confirm that activated MCs can act as APCs in renal disease. • This review introduces MC function through a developmental perspective and summarizes the important role of MC as antigen-presenting cells in renal local immune response. • This review mentions the uniqueness of MC and also points out the limitations of MC research at this stage. Mesangial cells (MCs), as resident cells of the kidneys, play an important role in maintaining glomerular function. MCs are located between the capillary loops of the glomeruli and mainly support the capillary plexus, constrict blood vessels, extracellular matrix components, produce cytokines, and perform phagocytosis and clearance of macromolecular substances. When the glomerular environment changes, MCs are often affected, which can lead to functional transformation. The immune response is involved in the occurrence and development of various kidney diseases, in these diseases, antigen-presenting cells (APCs) play an important role. APCs can present antigens to T lymphocytes, causing them to become activated and proliferate. Studies have shown that MCs have phagocytic function and express APC markers on the cell surface. Additionally, MCs are stimulated by or produce various inflammatory factors to participate in the renal inflammatory response. Therefore, MCs have potential antigen presentation function and participate in the pathological changes of various kidney diseases as APCs upon activation. In this paper, by reviewing MC phagocytic function, activated MC expression of APC surface markers, and MC participation in the inflammatory response and local renal immune response, we confirm that activated MCs can act as APCs in renal disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• An individual-based model describing interactions between tumour and CD8+ T cells. • The model takes into account tumour antigen expression and presentation. • The degree of tumour heterogeneity has an impact on immune response efficacy. • Wider ranges of antigens promote immune escape of tumours. • Lower levels of antigen presentation diminish the immune action. Intra-tumour heterogeneity (ITH) has a strong impact on the efficacy of the immune response against solid tumours. The number of sub-populations of cancer cells expressing different antigens and the percentage of immunogenic cells (i.e. tumour cells that are effectively targeted by immune cells) in a tumour are both expressions of ITH. Here, we present a spatially explicit stochastic individual-based model of the interaction dynamics between tumour cells and CD8+ T cells, which makes it possible to dissect out the specific impact of these two expressions of ITH on anti-tumour immune response. The set-up of numerical simulations of the model is defined so as to mimic scenarios considered in previous experimental studies. Moreover, the ability of the model to qualitatively reproduce experimental observations of successful and unsuccessful immune surveillance is demonstrated. First, the results of numerical simulations of this model indicate that the presence of a larger number of sub-populations of tumour cells that express different antigens is associated with a reduced ability of CD8+ T cells to mount an effective anti-tumour immune response. Secondly, the presence of a larger percentage of tumour cells that are not effectively targeted by CD8+ T cells may reduce the effectiveness of anti-tumour immunity. Ultimately, the mathematical model presented in this paper may provide a framework to help biologists and clinicians to better understand the mechanisms that are responsible for the emergence of different outcomes of immunotherapy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]