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The variability and dynamics of the Asian monsoon (AM, hereafter indicates both of the summer and winter monsoons.) at orbital and millennial timescales has attracted wide interest. Chinese loess deposits, covering an area of ~500 × 103 km2 and with a thickness of several tens to more than three hundred meters, is an ideal continental archive to reconstruct AM variations during the Quaternary epoch. Over the past thirty years, since the earliest paper published in an international journal that linked the Asian monsoon and Chinese loess deposits, many studies have been undertaken focusing on this research topic. These results have greatly deepened our understanding of the variations of the AM climate and their driving mechanisms during the past ~2.6 Myr. In this paper, we emphasize recent progress on the AM variability and dynamics revealed by Chinese loess records; in particular, we discuss the reliability and precision of the timescale and the monsoon proxy indicators for the loess-paleosol sequences, which are two fundamental aspects for understanding AM behavior. We analyze what we know and discuss what we do not know about the AM. We refine the timescale for the typical loess-paleosol sequence in the central Chinese Loess Plateau (CLP), which can be used as a new timescale to study palaeoclimate and palaeoenvironmental changes in the monsoonal Asia. We conclude that low-latitude insolation changes induced by precession, and global ice volume, temperature at high-latitudes, as well as sea-level changes forced variations of the AM at orbital time scales. High-latitude cooling events and low-latitude hydroclimate process at millennial time scales, such as climate changes associated with Heinrich events and Dansgaard-Oeschger cycles in Northern Atlantic and Greenland, have also modulated AM variability. We suggest that high-latitude forcing of AM variations occurs through ocean and atmospheric circulation linkages, although the roles of atmospheric CO 2 , ocean and vegetation feedbacks need further investigation. In future study, high-resolution independent dating, novel proxy indices and transient numerical simulations are still basic tools to understand the loess deposition and AM variations that require considerably more work. Issues such as reliable spatial comparison and regional linkages of records (dependent on precise and accurate numerical chronologies), and quantitative reconstruction of the AM variations, should be given priority in the study the past climate change in Asia, and low-latitude hydroclimate process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Food- and water-borne diseases (FWBD) are among climate and environmental sensitive infectious diseases. Climate change can highly exacerbate FWBD through vulnerable water systems. Highlights • Food- and water-borne diseases (FWBD) are a major cause of mortality and morbidity. • Africa counts 91 million people falling ill and 137,000 dying per year by FWBD. • Climate change could increase FWBD through bad water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH). • Floods' vulnerability maps of drinking water systems are important for prevention. • Appropriate WASH interventions can significantly contribute in reducing FWBD under climate change. Abstract This paper provides a view of the major facts and figures related to infectious diseases with a focus on food-borne and water-borne diseases and their link with environmental factors and climate change. The global burden of food-borne diseases for 31 selected hazards was estimated by the World Health Organization at 33 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) in 2010 with 40% of this burden concentrated among children under 5 years of age. The highest burden per population of food-borne diseases is found in Africa, followed by Southeast Asia and the Eastern Mediterranean sub-regions. Unsafe water used for the cleaning and processing of food is a key risk factors contributing to food-borne diseases. The role of quality and quantity of water to the general burden of infectious diseases deserves attention, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, as its effects go beyond the food chain. Water-related infectious diseases are a major cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide, and climate change effects will exacerbate the challenges for the public health sector for both food-borne and water-borne diseases. Selected case studies from Africa and Asia show that (i) climate change extreme events, such as floods, may exacerbate the risks for infectious diseases spreading through water systems, and (ii) improvements related to drinking water, sanitation and hygiene could result in a significant reduction of intestinal parasitic infections among school-aged children. There is a need to better anticipate the impacts of climate change on infectious diseases and fostering multi-stakeholder engagement and multi-sectoral collaborations for integrated interventions at schools, community and household levels. The paper calls for giving priority to improving the environmental conditions affecting food-borne and water-borne infectious diseases under climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extreme climate events are hotspots in global change. However, research on the changes in future compound events and population exposure is still limited. Leveraging from the data of the sixth phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6), this paper aims to analyze the temporal and spatial changes of global compound temperature and precipitation extreme events in the future. We also predict the risk of population exposure and quantify the contribution of different factors to exposure. The results show that: (1) In the next 80 years, compound hot-dry event (CHDE) will increase at a rate of 0.02, 0.03, and 0.08 days per decade under the three scenarios of SSP1–2.6, SSP2–4.5 and SSP5–8.5, respectively. By comparison, compound hot-humidity event (CHHE) shows a downward trend under the three scenarios, with a downward rate of 0.01, 0.02, and 0.11 days per decade, respectively. (2) Under the SSP1–2.6 and SSP2–4.5 scenarios, CHDE and CHHE have two or more mutation points. Under the SSP5–8.5 scenario, CHDE shows a significant upward and CHHE shows a significant downward trend in the middle and late 21st century. These two indices exhibit periodic changes in all three scenarios (3) South Asia, West Asia, and Northeast Africa have higher CHDE values, while regions with higher CHHE values are located in North Asia and Greenland. (4) Climate change is a major factor affecting population exposure. For CHDE, climate, population, and their synergistic effects contribute about 75%, 20%, and 5% to the exposure, respectively. For CHHE, the contributions of these three factors are 85%, 10%, and 5% respectively. These findings provide scientific guidance for the rational formulation of population policies, the effective avoidance of climate disaster risks and the protection of human health. • Frequency of hot-dry events and hot-humidity events will increase and decrease, respectively, in the future. • There are abrupt points and periodicity in the future time series of compound temperature and precipitation extremes. • Asia is projected to have the greatest exposure and climate change contributes the most to exposure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil erosion is part of the erosion-sedimentation cycle and a type of land degradation that can be caused by poor land management. This is expected to be exacerbated by climate change. The rainfall erosivity factor (R) of the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) family of soil erosion models is one of the most important parameters being studied because it is heavily influenced by climate change. The determination of the R factor necessitates high-frequency precipitation data, which are unavailable for a significant portion of the globe. For decades, researchers in data-sparse regions have estimated the R factor using empirical equations that required only monthly or annual rainfall data. Unfortunately, many of these equations are outdated and susceptible to misuse. This study presents an empirical R equation based on the Modified Fournier Index (MFI) that has caused probably one of the most widespread and unnoticed errors in soil erosion research for at least 33 years. Our exhaustive literature search and analysis uncovered 125 papers with 28 incorrect R equation formulations. We discovered that the earliest incorrect publication dates back to 1989, and most of the studies were conducted in Asia (China and India). The 125 published papers have similar citation characteristics (three citations per year per paper) as other papers in the field of soil erosion modelling, and many of the 125 papers were published in well-known scientific journals. Together, they have been cited over 3300 times by international researchers. In addition, the number of incorrect papers has increased dramatically over the past few years (2015–2021), indicating that the equation is spreading more frequently than the general publication trend. Since using an incorrect R equation can result in a significant bias in estimating the R factor and, consequently, soil erosion, the incorrect use could significantly bias numerous studies. The inaccuracy also hinders global efforts like the "Global Applications of Soil Erosion Modelling Tracker (GASEMT)" to synthesize soil erosion studies worldwide to shed light on the global problem of soil erosion and to promote environmental education. Consequently, the primary objective of this paper is to contribute to the recognition of the use of incorrect R equations, thereby reducing or even preventing their further spread and thus limiting the number of studies publishing biased results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ancient irrigation systems (AISs) have been providing a multitude of ecosystem services to rural farming and urban communities in Asia and Africa, especially in arid and semi-arid climatic areas with low rainfall. Many AISs, however have now been degraded. A systematic analysis of AISs on their typologies, causes of degradation, and their ecosystem services is lacking. The objective of this review was to synthesize the knowledge on AISs on their typologies, status and causes of degradation, ecosystem services and functions, and identify gaps in research in Asia and Africa. A critical review of peer-reviewed journal papers, conference and workshop proceedings, book chapters, grey literature, and country reports was conducted. Qualitative and quantitative information from journal papers were used to conceptualize the typologies and analyze the status and causes of degradation, and ecosystems services and functions provided by the AISs. Based on the review, we classified AISs into three groups by source of irrigation water: Rainwater harvesting system (RHS) with small reservoirs, ground water based system, and floodwater based system. The RHSs, which used to receive reliable rainfall and managed by well cohesive social organizations for their maintenance and functioning in past, have now been silting due to extreme rainfall pattern and breakdown of the cohesive organizations in recent decades. In ground water based systems, indiscriminate development of deep tube wells causing siltation of channels has been a major challenge. In floodwater irrigation systems, irregular rainfall in the highlands and the breakage of irrigation structures by destructive floods were the main causes of degradation. Lack of maintenance and increased soil erosion, inadequate skilled manpower, and declining support from the government for repair and maintenance were the main causes of degradation of all AISs. The main ecosystem service provided by all AISs is water for agriculture. In tank- and pond-based systems, fish farming is also practiced. Tank irrigation systems provide various types of provisioning, regulatory, cultural and supporting services, especially in India and Sri Lanka. Ground water based systems provide water for domestic purposes and various cultural services. Floodwater based systems provide water for power generation and wildlife habitat maintenance and help in flood control. The knowledge generated through the review provide evidence-based information, and help aware governments, private sectors and development agencies for improved policy planning and decision making, and prioritizing the restoration, rehabilitation, and management of various AISs. Community Managed Ancient Irrigation Systems in Asia and Africa: Typologies, Degradation and Ecosystem services. [Display omitted] • Ancient irrigation systems (AISs) in Asia and Africa provide a multitude of benefits to mankind but are at a threat of degradation. • A systematic review conducted to identify typologies, status and causes of degradation of, and ecosystems services provided by, AISs. • Three typologies (rainwater harvesting, groundwater, and surface water based) and four ecosystems services identified. • Cascade tanks in Sri Lanka and India provide irrigation water for farming communities and ecosystem services for local communities and societies. • Rehabilitation of AISs needs urgent attention by governments, private sector, and development partners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evolution of global temperature during Holocene is crucial for understanding the mechanisms of climate change and future climate trends. However, there is a discrepancy between the temperature trends reconstructed from proxy and model, which is attributed to the seasonal biases and the appearance of the Holocene thermal maximum was dominated by the temperature of the warm season. In this paper, fossil charcoal assemblages from the southern Chinese Loess Plateau were analysed to provide quantitative mean annual temperatures (MAT) and four-season temperature records during 6.55–3.45 cal ka BP. The results indicate that both the seasonal temperatures and MAT during the middle Holocene reached warm peaks between 5.55 and 5.35 cal ka BP. The similar trend between the winter temperature (WIT) and MAT denotes the highest contribution of WIT changes to the MAT in the study area since the mid-Holocene. • Flowering functional group was used to reconstruct spring-autumn temperature. • Nonhardy plants were used to reconstruct winter temperature. • Winter temperature contributed the most to the annual temperature since mid-Holocene. • Middle-Holocene temperature was not showing a long-term warming trend. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the face of climate change, it is essential to rethink how we build to reduce the environmental impact of the construction industry. Timber construction can be a solution to reduce the use of concrete or steel, whose manufacture emits much CO 2. This paper proposes a method to reinterpret tenon and mortise joints for construction. Friction-based assemblies, particularly mortise and tenon wooden joints, have been studied for centuries in Asia and Europe and may offer promising constructive solutions, such as allowing disassembling rather than demolishing a structure. These assemblies can be complex; they initially required a great deal of craftsmanship, which robotics can now replace to manufacture and assemble them. Nevertheless, it is necessary to develop methods to produce these robotic joints. Our method uses non-sequential assemblies, which are by definition, opposed to sequential assemblies. An assembly is said to be sequential when the elements that compose it are assembled one after the other, in a defined order or not. For a non-sequential assembly, all the elements that compose it are in motion and assembled simultaneously. This assembly method has the particularity of being locked only by its kinematics, which makes it possible to easily (dis)assemble the elements by only knowing their motion. After an introduction and defining the terms and hypotheses of our research, we discuss the related word. In the fourth section, the developed method is explained. Then, we introduce the different parameters to control the assembly's design and kinematics. After that, we extend the previous method to the third dimension. Finally, a construction prototype demonstrates the method's efficiency. [Display omitted] • Generality: our method works for pure translation, in 2D or 3D. • Exhaustivity: any kinematic can be generate thanks to parallel transformation. • Control: calculations and parameters are given to choose the kinematics according to external factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As reported in previous studies, global warming has caused a clear uptick in dryland areas since the 1950s. Meanwhile, the accelerated expansion of drylands has become particularly evident over the past 40 years, with dry/wet patterns showing significant differences prior to and after 1980. This paper uses the Precipitation/Potential evaporation (P/PET) index to analyze changes occurring in the dry/wet structure of various spatial and temporal scales during 1948–2008. The results show the emergence of complex aridity changes on a regional scale. While aridity generally decreased in the drylands of Asia during 1948–2008, the change in aridity was opposite in the drylands of the American and African continents between 1948 and 1979 and 1980–2008. Specifically, drylands in the American continent showed a wetting tendency during 1948–1979 and a drying tendency during 1980–2008, whereas drylands in the African continent underwent significant drying during 1948–1979 followed by subtle wetting in 1980–2008. Even though rapid warming since the 1980s has become an increasingly important cause of the recent global drying trend, especially in East and Central Asia, the changes in aridity in the American and African drylands is attributable to natural variabilities in precipitation associated with multi-decadal surface sea temperature changes, along with large-scale circulation patterns. • Dry/wet patterns in dryland areas show significant differences in the decades prior to and after 1980. • The change in aridity was opposite in American and African drylands between 1948–1979 and 1980–2008. • Aridity changes in American and African drylands are closely related to multi-decadal changes in surface sea temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Fluctuations in glacier mass and volume are indicative of changes in the climate system. They also strongly affect regional climate and hydrology. In this paper, we explore possible relationships between the radial growth of Schrenk spruce (Picea schren kiana Fisch. et Mey) and the mass balance of the Tsentralniy Tuyuksuyskiy (TS. Tuyuksuyskiy) Glacier, which is located on the northern slopes of the Tianshan Mountains in arid central Asia. We attempt to reconstruct the historical mass balance variability of the TS. Tuyuksuyskiy glacier using tree-ring widths and stable carbon isotope chronologies. The reconstruction is able to explain 62.1% of the variance in the annual glacier mass balance record over the 1965–2014 calibration period. We also analyzed centennial mass balance variability and its linkages to climate change. The TS.Tuyuksuyskiy glacier has a negative annual mass balance in most years and, since 1968, has undergone the most rapid and longest melting process in the past 166 years. The mass balance change of the glacier is controlled by the combination of temperature and precipitation conditions. This study could be useful for more detailed glaciological, hydrological, and climatological assessments in this portion of the Tianshan Mountains. Highlights • The reconstruction of glacial changes using tree ring widths and stable carbon isotopes is reliable in arid central Asia. • The TS.Tuyuksuyskiy glacier has had a negative annual mass balance for most of the past 166 years. • The mass balance change of the glacier is controlled by the combination of temperature and precipitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change in the Arctic is leading to the fast recession of sea ice in the summer. This evolution leads several observers, scientists, media and government officials, to consider the possibility of developing new shipping routes along Arctic routes, as these routes are much shorter between Europe and Asia. The literature displays a strong discourse about interest from Asian countries for these potential shipping routes. This paper tackles with this idea and examines to what extent Asian shipping companies, the ultimate economic agents, are really interested in Arctic shipping routes. The image the research portrayed is that only a minority of Asian shipping companies are indeed interested, and those that are interested stress the destinational dimension of Arctic shipping, not transit shipping. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finance has become a crucial agenda in climate change negotiations in recent years. Meanwhile, multilateral negotiations on climate change as a whole are making meager progress, and increasingly observed are activities by national governments and transnational non-state actors. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate how investment towards low-carbon development could be materialized in Asia. A thorough review of current financial assistance for developing countries in Asia was conducted, and the amount of funding proved to be relatively modest to achieve the aim. We then examined financial policy instruments that could be implemented in the region. We estimated that USD125–149 billion per year would be needed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the region by 2035. We also estimated that more than a half of this amount of funding could be achieved by public sector if several key policy instruments were agreed upon and enacted at regional and national levels in Asia. The role of private sector investment was also found to be indispensable in fulfilling all the long-term investment needs related to climate mitigation in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the Anisotropy of Magnetic Susceptibility (AMS) records during late Neogene to early Quaternary from the Lantian loess section near the southern margin of the Chinese Loess Plateau. The AMS results for this site are shown to reflect variations in the direction of the paleomonsoon. The Lantian loess sediments are largely aeolian in origin, but also include a thin layer that exhibits secondary aqueous depositional features. The major ellipsoid axis AMS orientations in the loess samples indicate a pervasive Northwest–Southeast directional component since the late Neogene. Since that time, the W–E component gradually overtakes the N–S component, which may explain the trend toward increased aridity during that time. Finally, a local heavy rainfall event seemingly occurred in the Lantian region about 2.6 Ma, which may have been responsible for the aqueous redeposition of sediments observed in L 33 layer in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 3 is the latest interstadial to be a significant period for paleoclimate research. The mild interstadial climate in MIS 3 can shed light on studies of the current warming period. However, it is uncertain whether or not the humidity in MIS 3 exceeds that in Holocene level, and forcing mechanisms of paleoclimate evolution remains controversial. In this paper, we use pollen and AMS 14C dating data of a sediment core Ailike-2019 (4.49 m) recovered from Lake Ailike, Xinjiang in arid central Asia, to reconstruct the vegetation and climate changes in Lake Ailike over the last 40,000 years. The results show that Lake Ailike region has been dominated by desert vegetation since the middle MIS 3. The vegetation coverage shows that climate was arid in the middle MIS 3 (40.2-33.2 cal kyr BP), ameliorated during the late MIS 3 (33.2-26.7 cal kyr BP) but still dry, extremely dry during MIS 2 (26.7-12 cal kyr BP), and relatively wet during Holocene (12-0 cal kyr BP). The climate in the Holocene was wetter than in the mid-late MIS 3 in Lake Ailike, which is generally consistent with the paleoclimate records from arid central Asia and Europe. This climate pattern might be attributed to amounts of vapor transported by the westerlies and Siberian high pressure. Low/high Northern Atlantic sea-surface temperatures (SSTs) induced by decreased/increased Northern Hemisphere summer insolation resulted in westerlies transporting less/more amount of vapor to the arid central Asia during MIS 3/Holocene. Meanwhile, intensified/weakened Siberian high pressure resulting from the expanding/melting of ice sheet might induce dry/wet climate conditions in the mid-late MIS 3/the Holocene. • Fossil pollen records from Lake Ailike reveal vegetation and climate history since the middle MIS 3. • The climate was significantly wetter in the Holocene than in the mid-late MIS 3 in Lake Ailike. • This climate pattern is in general agreement with that in arid central Asia and Europe. • Eurasian ice volume and Northern Atlantic SSTs might be the driving factors of effective moisture in arid central Asia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate on the Tibetan Plateau is often considered sensitive to global changes, yet the degree of sensitivity in different spaces and seasons prior to instrumental records is not clear. In this paper, we studied tree-ring maximum latewood density (MXD) to examine the late-summer (August–September) temperature variation over the past two and half centuries on the eastern Tibetan Plateau. The MXD regional chronology was established from 109 tree-ring samples of Balfour spruce [ Picea likiangensis var. balfouriana (Rehd. et Wils.)] at four high elevation sites. The chronology exhibited a high correlation ( r = 0.82, n = 56, p < 0.001) with the mean August–September temperature. Using the tree-ring data, we reconstructed the late-summer temperature for the period A.D. 1765–2009. The reconstruction accounted for 71.4% of the variance in instrumental temperature in the period 1954–2009. The reconstructed temperature did not show a warming trend in the past 250 years, suggesting a unique characteristic of late-summer temperature variability in the study region of the Tibetan Plateau. Our tree-ring data are useful for further understanding of the plateau's thermal condition in late summer and its role in regulating southward retreat of the Southwest Asian monsoon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]