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This study employs the dynamic recursive Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) approach to model Australia's economy. This carbon tax policy is designed based on Australia's economy, starting at A$23/tCO2, increasing over time and imposing uniformly on all industries. This study proposes two carbon tax policies and three revenue recycling approaches, and the prices and GDP variations are estimated during 2020 and 2035. This study confirms introducing a carbon tax policy decreases Australia's carbon emissions and reduces real consumption and GDP if it is not accompanied by a revenue recycling policy. But following a revenue-neutral policy and redirecting the carbon tax revenue into the economy through reducing income taxes and investing in research and development (R&D) projects leads to economic growth. This study confirms the implementation of a carbon tax associated with a suitable revenue recycling approach benefits Australia both economically and environmentally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Maximising opportunities to unlock the potential of national pollution datasets may provide the catalyst to increase transparency of pollution data, foster better communication between government agencies and industry pollutant emitters, and ultimately result in a more effective cleaner production program. In many countries, pollution data is required to be collected and reported under national Pollutant and Transfer Registers (PRTRs), which are becoming established environmental policy tools across the world. This study considers the Australian PRTR experience, by examining data use of its National Pollutant Inventory (NPI). Australian government and industry stakeholders were surveyed (n = 132) about their application of national pollution data, and their views towards potential improvements. The results indicated that government employees and researchers primarily used the inventory to obtain information about pollution, conduct research or to develop and review environmental policies and programs. However it was clear that, due to current limitations with the inventory, its use has not been fully maximised to inform environmental management or for research purposes. Stakeholders called for changes to more robust and nationally consistent emission estimation methods, and increased comprehensiveness, along with a requirement to incorporate international best practice with regards to emission inventories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Direct and indirect effects of sectors on net energy consumption are analysed. • Level effect is identified as the major driver for increasing energy consumption. • Manufacturing has the largest energy consumption reduction potential. • How to decrease net energy consumption has been offered to policy-makers. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of Australian net energy consumption between 2004–05 and 2014–15. Results from environmentally-extended input-output (EEIO) analysis show that the Transport sector has the largest direct effect on net energy consumption in industrial sectors, which decreased by about 35% for net energy consumption per million $AUD in the period. The Export sector has the largest direct net energy consumption while Households consumption results in the largest net energy consumption embodied in different categories of Final demand. The structural decomposition analysis (SDA) decomposes the change of net energy consumption into five drivers, in which net energy intensity mainly reduces Australian net energy consumption by about 8000 Petajoules, while the level effect of Final demand increases it by about 10,000 Petajoules. Analysis of forward and backward linkages highlights the Manufacturing sector as the key industrial sector with the largest energy consumption reduction potential via minor changes in its input and Final demand. This indicates that more attention should be given to the reduction of energy demand from the consumption patterns of Households consumption, the improvement of energy intensity, and the application of cleaner technologies in the Transport and Manufacturing sectors. The Australian Environmental-Economic Accounts is combined with Australian input-output tables to construct the EEIO tables for net energy consumption. The combination of economic and environmental data sets provides a depth of understanding their potential to inform environmental policy decisions. The novelty of the research is the combination of economic and energy data sets, the application of EEIO model, the implementation of the additive SDA method, and the use of forward and backward linkages for the Australian energy system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deforestation threatens the earth's biodiversity and the ecosystem services upon which humans depend. Formal regulation is a key mechanism by which governments seek to protect forests. However, whether regulation can effectively protect remaining areas of the most threatened and most heavily cleared forests is unknown. We addressed this question using forest loss data for Queensland, Australia between 2000 and 2014 under existing vegetation clearing regulation ( Vegetation Management Act 1999 ). This regulation is specifically designed to provide the greatest protection for threatened forest types that have already lost the greatest amount of their original extent. Importantly, enforcement and governance of this regulation is relatively strong allowing an assessment of regulation design. We applied path analysis to model the direct and indirect effects (mediated by variables representing deforestation pressure) of forest protection level on clearing rates. There was strong evidence for a decline in clearing rates over time, except of clearing for non-agricultural purposes. However, threatened forest types, which have already lost > 70% of their original extent and should have the greatest level of protection under the regulation, continue to be cleared 2.7–2.9 times faster than non-threatened forest types. There was also little evidence that the regulation has driven greater reductions over time in the clearing rates of threatened versus non-threatened forests types. There was much greater support for the indirect than direct effect of protection level. This is because protection level was correlated with variables associated with deforestation pressure, resulting in higher clearing rates for threatened compared to non-threatened forest types. We hypothesise that this arises because the additional protection afforded to threatened relative to non-threatened forests is insufficient to counter the continuing higher level of deforestation pressure on threatened forests. We argue that a potential solution is to build explicit targets for forest retention into regulation, below which no further forest loss is permitted. This could be combined with spatially targeted enforcement and incentive strategies where threats are highest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Feral cats ( Felis catus ) have devastated wildlife globally. In Australia, feral cats are implicated in most recent mammal extinctions and continue to threaten native species. Cat control is a high-profile priority for Australian policy, research and management. To develop the evidence-base to support this priority, we first review information on cat presence/absence on Australian islands and mainland cat-proof exclosures, finding that cats occur across >99.8% of Australia's land area. Next, we collate 91 site-based feral cat density estimates in Australia and examine the influence of environmental and geographic influences on density. We extrapolate from this analysis to estimate that the feral cat population in natural environments fluctuates between 1.4 million (95% confidence interval: 1.0–2.3 million) after continent-wide droughts, to 5.6 million (95% CI: 2.5–11 million) after extensive wet periods. We estimate another 0.7 million feral cats occur in Australia's highly modified environments (urban areas, rubbish dumps, intensive farms). Feral cat densities are higher on small islands than the mainland, but similar inside and outside conservation land. Mainland cats reach highest densities in arid/semi-arid areas after wet periods. Regional variation in cat densities corresponds closely with attrition rates for native mammal fauna. The overall population estimate for Australia's feral cats (in natural and highly modified environments), fluctuating between 2.1 and 6.3 million, is lower than previous estimates, and Australian feral cat densities are lower than reported for North America and Europe. Nevertheless, cats inflict severe impacts on Australian fauna, reflecting the sensitivity of Australia's native species to cats and reinforcing that policy, research and management to reduce their impacts is critical. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Australian agricultural land use and production have evolved within an economic and environmental context that may change substantially in terms of productivity rates, resource scarcity and degradation, greenhouse gas abatement policy, climate change, and global demand. We used an integrated systems modelling approach to explore the response of Australian land use and agricultural production to these changes from 2013 to 2050. We found potentially large transitions in spatial and temporal patterns of land use, agricultural production, output rates, and profitability. New land uses such as carbon plantings, biofuels and bioenergy, and environmental plantings competed with food and fibre production, reducing its area. Global outlooks, including the strength of action on climate change and population assumptions, had a strong influence. Capacity constraints and adoption inertia reduced and delayed land use change. Agricultural production and land use were sensitive to productivity assumptions. Despite the competition for land from new land uses, agricultural production increased under most settings, with greatest impact from land use transitions concentrated on livestock production. Agricultural profits also increased under most settings due to higher prices and output rates. Negligible land use change was observed with carbon payments below $50 per tCO 2 -e, and significant change did not occur before 2030 in any but the unconstrained, high-abatement scenarios. We conclude that transformative land use change is plausible but high levels of food/fibre production can co-exist with non-food land uses motivated by market responses to global change and domestic policy. Thereby, the Australian land sector can continue its significant contribution to global food security while responding to new economic opportunities. Policy settings can influence these outcomes through reducing infrastructure constraints, strategies for enhancing adoption, and research and development in agricultural technology and productivity. Due to the long time frames required to change attitudes and land use and management practices, consideration of the possible impacts of global change on agriculture and potential policy responses is timely. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globally, centralised urban water systems are under pressure to respond to environmental and economic pressures. In Australia, high infrastructure costs and variable rainfall have prompted governments, end-users and property developers to begin investing in more decentralised systems that use alternative water sources (rainwater, stormwater and wastewater). This trend is based on a fit-for-purpose principle and is part of a global shift toward sustainable urban water management. These developments suggest that Australia's urban water sector may be in the early stages of transition and represent a multi-decadal shift from centralisation of water supply and sanitation to partial decentralisation based on local conditions. Much of the scholarship on decentralised systems focuses on drivers and barriers to adoption, which implies a static and mechanistic process of change, and overlooks the complex interplay between exogenous pressures, innovation, multiple actors and industry reform. This paper addresses this gap by analysing temporal processes of Australia's urban water sector, using a regionally based case study comprising an historical review and interview study that analyses the multi-level, -decadal and -actor developments at the nexus between water service provision and property development. The analysis revealed emerging tensions between incumbent water utilities, property developers and end-users, and an inherent conflict between neo-liberal and environmental policy agendas. Such tensions and conflicts are missing from urban water policy and research discourse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental decision-making applies transdisciplinary knowledge to deliver optimal outcomes. Here we synthesise various aspects of seagrass ecology to aid environmental decision-making, management and policy. Managers often mediate conflicting values and opinions held by different stakeholders. Critical to this role is understanding the drivers for change, effects of management actions and societal benefits. We use the diversity of seagrass habitats in Australia to demonstrate that knowledge from numerous fields is required to understand seagrass condition and resilience. Managers are often time poor and need access to synthesised assessments, commonly referred to as narratives. However, there is no single narrative for management of seagrass habitats in Australia, due to the diversity of seagrass meadows and dominant pressures. To assist the manager, we developed a classification structure based on attributes of seagrass life history, habitat and meadow form. Seagrass communities are formed from species whose life history strategies can be described as colonising, opportunistic or persistent. They occupy habitats defined by the range and variability of their abiotic environment. This results in seagrass meadows that are either transitory or enduring. Transitory meadows may come and go and able to re-establish from complete loss through sexual reproduction. Enduring meadows may fluctuate in biomass but maintain a presence by resisting pressures across multiple scales. This contrast reflects the interaction between the spatial and temporal aspects of species life history and habitat variability. Most management and monitoring strategies in place today favour enduring seagrasses. We adopt a functional classification of seagrass habitats based on modes of resilience to inform management for all seagrass communities. These concepts have world-wide relevance as the Australian case-studies have many analogues throughout the world. Additionally, the approach used to classify primary scientific knowledge into synthesised categories to aid management has value for many other disciplines interfacing with environmental decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]