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In the present work, the operating results from an innovative, renewable, energy-based space-heating and domestic hot water (DHW) system are shown. The system used solar thermal energy as its primary source and was assisted by a shallow geothermal application in order to accommodate the space-heating and DHW needs of a domestic building in Austria. The system incorporated phase-change materials (PCMs) in specially designed containers to function as heat-storage modules and provide an energy storage capability for both the space-heating and DHW subsystems. This system was designed, implemented, and tested under real operating conditions in a building for a period of one year. The operating and energy results for the system are demonstrated in this work. The system was compared with a conventional one, and a reduction in the primary energy consumption equal to 84.3% was achieved. The maintenance and operating costs of the system were reduced by 79.7% compared to the conventional system, thus significantly contributing to the NZEB target of the building. The newly proposed system, although presenting an increased operating complexity, utilizes an innovative self-learning control system that manages all of its operations. The combination of a solar thermal energy source with thermal energy storage increases the use of renewable energy by extending the capacity of the system beyond the solar hours and using excess solar energy for space-heating needs. The thermal energy storage unit also increases the energy and economic efficiency of the geothermal heat pump by operating it during the hours of a reduced electricity tariff and using the stored energy during hours of a high electricity demand. The cost for the installation of such a system is higher than a conventional one, but due to the significantly decreased operating costs, the pay-back period was calculated to be 8.7 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy retrofit solutions that concern a building's roof structure play a significant role in the enhancement of a building's thermal behaviour. This study investigates the integration of phase change materials (PCMs) with cool coatings (CCs) or thermochromic coatings (TCCs), namely, a PCM roof, a PCM-CC roof, and a PCM-TCC roof, as alternative and novel tactics for the simultaneous control of solar heat transfer and solar heat reflection. An energy simulation analysis with the DesignBuilder tool is conducted for a one-story residence and the climatic conditions of Athens. The simulation results indicate that, compared to the existing concrete roof construction, the PCM roof, PCM-CC, and PCM-TCC roof systems demonstrate energy savings that reach up to 13.55%, 16.04%, and 21.70%, respectively. The systematic analysis reveals that the increase in PCM's thickness leads to an increase in the total electricity savings of the buildings, but in the case of PCM-CC and PCM-TCC roof systems, they merely effect the cooling thermal loads. The mean phase transition temperature that favours the cumulative electricity savings is 28 °C in the case of PCM and PCM-TCC roof systems and 35 °C in the case of PCM-CC roof systems. The methodology of this study allows the design of efficient, integrated roof systems with advanced thermal and optical properties as energy retrofit solutions for Mediterranean climatic conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A prototype Latent Heat Thermal Energy Storage (LHTES) unit has been designed, constructed, and experimentally analysed for its thermal storage performance under different operational conditions considering heating application and exploiting solar and geothermal energy. The system consists of a rectangular tank filled with Phase Change Material (PCM) and a finned tube staggered Heat Exchanger (HE) while water is used as Heat Transfer Fluid (HTF). Different HTF inlet temperatures and flow rates were tested to find out their effects on LHTES performance. Thermal quantities such as HTF outlet temperature, heat transfer rate, stored energy, were evaluated as a function of the conditions studied. Two commercial organic PCMs were tested A44 and A46. Results indicate that A44 is more efficient during the charging period, taking into account the two energy sources, solar and heat pump. During the discharging process, it exhibits higher storage capacity than A46. Concluding, the developed methodology can be applied to study different PCMs and building applications.

The goal of this investigation is the thorough analysis and optimization of a solar-assisted heat pump heating unit for covering the space heating demand for a building in Athens, Greece. The novelty of the studied system is the use of a high-temperature heat pump that can operate with radiative terminal units, leading to high thermal comfort standards. The examined system includes flat-plate solar thermal collectors, an insulated thermal storage tank, auxiliary electrical thermal resistance in the tank and a high-temperature heat pump. The economic optimization indicates that the optimal design includes 35 m2 of solar thermal collectors connected with a storage tank of 2 m3 for facing the total heating demand of 6785 kWh. In this case, the life cycle cost was calculated at 22,694 EUR, the seasonal system coefficient of performance at 2.95 and the mean solar thermal efficiency at 31.60%. On the other hand, the multi-objective optimization indicates the optimum design is the selection of 50 m2 of solar field connected to a thermal tank of 3 m3. In this scenario, the life cycle cost was calculated at 24,084 EUR, the seasonal system coefficient of performance at 4.07 and the mean solar thermal efficiency at 25.33%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing demand for food, the lack of natural resources and arable land, and the recent restrictions on energy consumption require an immediate solution in terms of agricultural activities. This paper's objective was to review hydroponics (a new soilless cultivation technology) and compare it with conventional agriculture (soil cultivation) regarding its environmental impact and water and energy consumption. The soil loss, the crop/soil contamination, and the greenhouse gas emissions were the criteria for the environmental comparison of conventional agriculture and hydroponics. As for resource consumption, the water consumption rates (L/kg), energy consumption rates (kWh), and energy required (kW) were the criteria for comparing conventional agriculture with hydroponics. Tomato and cannabis cultivation were used as case studies in this review. The review results showed that the advantages of hydroponics over conventional cultivation include zero-soil cultivation, land-use efficiency, planting environment cleanliness, fertilizer and resource saving, water consumption reduction, and conservation. The disadvantages of hydroponics versus conventional cultivation were found to include the high investment costs, technical know-how requirements, and higher amount of demanded energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-temperature heat pumps consist of a promising choice for substituting conventional boilers and producing hot water with temperature levels in the range of 70–80 °C. The use of high-temperature heat pumps makes it possible to exploit the existing radiators in existing buildings to achieve effective heating of the indoor space and keep thermal comfort at high standards. The goal of this work is the detailed investigation of a high-temperature heat pump, with the R1234ze(E) as the working medium for producing heating at 80 °C for space-heating purposes, in Greek climate conditions. The analysis was conducted at two locations, one in the south (Athens—Zone B) and one in the north (Thessaloniki—Zone C), in order to examine the performance of the study's technology in the most representative locations of Greece. The thermodynamic analysis of the heat pump was performed with a developed model in Engineering Equation Solver by exploiting real data from the compressor manufacturer and by practically using a gray box model. The heating thermal loads were calculated with a dynamic analysis using TRNSYS software. According to the final results, the high-temperature heat pump was beneficial when compared to a conventional oil boiler from energy, financial, and environmental points of view. The net savings were found at EUR 6448 for Athens and EUR 13,161 for Thessaloniki; the simple payback period resulted in 8.03 years for Athens and 6.11 years for Thessaloniki, while the CO2 emissions avoidance was found at 35% for Athens and 32% for Thessaloniki. Last but not least, the lifetime CO2 emissions reduction was calculated at 20,882 kgCO2 for Athens and 35,278 kgCO2 for Thessaloniki. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A small-scale latent heat thermal energy storage (LHTES) unit for heating applications was studied experimentally using an organic phase change material (PCM). The unit comprised of a tank filled with the PCM, a staggered heat exchanger (HE) for transferring heat from and to the PCM, and a water pump to circulate water as a heat transfer fluid (HTF). The performance of the unit using the commercial organic paraffin A44 was studied in order to understand the thermal behavior of the system and the main parameters that influence heat transfer during the PCM melting and solidification processes. The latter will assist the design of a large-scale unit. The effect of flow rate was studied given that it significantly affects charging (melting) and discharging (solidification) processes. In addition, as organic PCMs have low thermal conductivity, the possible improvement of the PCM’s thermal behavior by means of nanoparticle addition was investigated. The obtained results were promising and showed that the use of graphite-based nanoplatelets improves the PCM thermal behavior. Charging was clearly faster and more efficient, while with the appropriate tuning of the HTF flow rate, an efficient discharging was accomplished. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A numerical study was carried out to investigate charging and discharging processes of different phase change materials (PCMs) used for thermal storage in an innovative solar collector, targeting domestic hot water (DHW) requirements. The aim was to study PCMs that meet all application requirements, considering their thermal performance in terms of stored and retrieved energy, outlet temperatures, and water flow rate. Work was carried out for three flat-plate solar panels of different sizes. For each panel, a PCM tank with a heat exchanger was attached on the back plate. Simulations were conducted on a 2D domain using the enthalpy–porosity technique. Three paraffin-based PCMs were studied, two (A53, P53) with phase-change temperatures of approximately 53 °C and one of approximately 58 °C (A58H). Results showed that, during charging, A58H can store the most energy and A53 the least (12.30 kWh and 10.54 kWh, respectively, for the biggest unit). However, the biggest unit, A58H, takes the most time to be fully charged, i.e., 6.43 h for the fastest feed rate, while the A53 unit charges the fastest, at 4.25 h. The behavior of P53 lies in between A53 and A58H, considering stored energy and charging time. During discharging, all PCMs could provide an adequate DHW amount, even in the worst case, that is, a small unit with a high hot water consumption rate. The A58H unit provides hot water above 40 °C for 10 min, P53 for 11 min, and A53 for 12 min. The DHW production duration increased if a bigger unit was used or if the consumption rate was lower. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An innovative thermal energy storage system (TESSe2b) was retrofitted in a residential building in Cyprus with a typical Mediterranean climate. The system comprises flat-plate solar collectors, thermal energy storage tanks filled with organic phase change material, a geothermal installation consisting of borehole heat exchangers with and without phase change material and a ground source heat pump, an advanced self-learning control system, backup devices and several other auxiliary components. The thermal energy storage tanks cover the building's needs at certain temperature ranges (10–17 °C for cooling, 38–45 °C for heating and 50–60 °C for domestic hot water). A performance evaluation was conducted by comparing the TESSe2b system with the existing conventional heating and cooling system. The systems were simulated using commercial software, and the performance of the systems and the building's energy needs were calculated. Based on the energy quantities, an economic analysis followed. The equivalent annual primary energy consumption with the conventional system resulted in being 43335 kWh, while for the storage system, it was only 8398 kWh. The payback period for the storage system was calculated to be equal to 9.76 years. The operation of the installed storage system provided data for calculations of the seasonal performance factor and storage performance. The seasonal performance factor values were very high during June, July and August, since the TESSe2b system works very efficiently in cooling mode due to the very high temperatures that dominate in Cyprus. The measured stored thermal energy for cooling, heating and domestic hot water resulted in being 14.5, 21.9 and 6.2 kWh, respectively. Moreover, the total volume of the phase change material thermal energy storage tanks for heating and domestic hot water was calculated to be roughly several times smaller than the volume of a tank with water as a storage medium. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]