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The article focuses on developments relevant to education in Great Britain as of October 1973. Nigel Grant, reader in education at the University of Edinburgh, joined the Editorial Board of "Comparative Education" magazine. The eight session of the Standing Conference of European Ministers of Education was held in June 1973, which focused on "The Educational Needs of the 16-19 Age Group." UNESCO released its latest publication "Present Problems in the Democratization of Secondary and Higher Education." The Schools Council and the Standing Conference on University Entrance published the Working Paper 46, entitled "16-19: Growth and Response, 2. Examination Structure" and Working Paper 47, "Preparation for Degree Courses."

This article discusses psychological types and changes with age. A considerable quantity of observations concerning retests, self and supplementary-estimates, psychiatric estimates, discrepancies; discrimination of the given estimate as relating to true inborn type or admired type or imagined type or overt type; ambivalence and overlying factors like emotions, all part and parcel of so-called clinical experience, have been discussed in a separate paper. One thousand subjects in age groups from 10 to 80 with equal incidence of each sex have been tabulated in various relations and reported in other papers. The persons observed were unselected, the questionnaire being offered wherever opportunity was found.

Age specific divorce rates for the United States as a whole are not available. This paper is an attempt to develop estimates of age specific incidence of divorce for the U.S. female population employing regression analyses. Certain correction factors are suggested to make the estimates built on a world divorce situation basis correspond to the American situation. Results derived in the paper reveal that the divorce curve for U.S. females is L-shaped in form. The age group below 20 years had the highest incidence of divorce (43 per 1000) followed by the age group 20 to 24 (33 per 1000) in 1969, while in 1960 these incidences were 33 per 1000 and 23 per 1000, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is now a considerable literature in capital theory dealing with "learning by doing" and with the question of the "embodiment" of technical knowledge of a given period in the capital goods produced in that period. There have, however, been relatively few attempts to examine these questions empirically, and hardly any work has been done on the application of these approaches to skill formation and education. This paper is an attempt to begin this work by drawing some empirical implications and then testing them with data from the U. S. Census of 1960 and the Canadian Census of 1961. It is clear that if workers in different age groups, but with the same number of years of schooling, are examined, an older worker will have had a longer opportunity to "learn by doing," but probably will have received a formal education inferior to that of a younger one. By assuming that formal education and learning by doing are complementary, and also that there are diminishing returns, it is possible to draw some firm analytical conclusions about the age-productivity profiles of people with the same number of years of formal education. But productivity as such is difficult to measure, and the translation of the results to age-earning profiles, by assuming that marginal productivity equals earning rates, requires the fulfillment of some strong conditions, for example, perfect competition. Instead, it was assumed that earnings were a linear function of productivity, which covers a wide variety of cases, including uniform degrees of imperfection. With this background, two results were anticipated in the age-earning profiles of each educational bracket, viz., (1) each would have a single peak, i.e., earnings would uniformly rise or uniformly fall, or rise up to a point and then fall; and (2) the rate of rise in earnings must fall uniformly over time (or the rate of fall in earnings rise uniformly over time). The U. S. Census of 1960 was used to calculate the age-earning profile for each educational group; the first result was verified without exception and the second with one minor exception. The Canadian Census of 1961 also confirmed the results without exception. However, some limitations of the study are also pointed out, and too much significance should not be attached to the empirical verification. The paper is mainly an attempt to marry two branches of economic thinking, and the empirical exercises illustrate one, but not the only, possible marriage. An incidental by-product of the study is the set of age-earning profiles from the 1960 U. S. Census, and some of the contrasts to be drawn between this and those of 1940 and 1950 are noted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper formulates a demographic flow model that can be used to analyze the effects of university early-retirement policies on faculty appointment rates and rank and age distributions. In addition, it discusses a specific early-retirement plan designed to induce less productive older members of a faculty into voluntary withdrawal while offering significantly less encouragement to their more productive colleagues. The model is then used to examine the extent to which this plan is likely to achieve its intended results, namely an increase in the flow rate of new appointments, a reduction in the number of older faculty members in service, and a reduction in total personnel costs. Both short-run and equilibrium effects are analyzed with specific reference to the situation at Stanford University. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper, which concerns a population model relating the birth rate to a stable age distribution and a stable rate of population growth, gives a nonlinear programming formulation based on this model that allows us to determine (1) the birth rate minimizing the sum of the costs due to changing the current birth rates and the costs of social goods and services associated with the resulting age distribution, and (2) the birth rate achieving a desired age distribution and population growth rate while minimizing the cost due to birth control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is suggested that a useful component of a fertility simulation would be proportions of females sterile by age. Data on this phenomenon are rather limited, but they indicate that proportional sterility may not easily be described by a simple function. We propose that rates of becoming sterile may be adequately described by an exponential function utilizing proper parameter values. Such exponential-model rates form the basis for computation of a fecundity decrement table presented in this paper. Sterility proportions from the table are compared to some empirical data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research and theory relative to the lower class adolescent male peer group has focused largely on the culture and behavior of group members. Further, the focus has been on the different types of behavior characteristic of different groups. While this analysis has been quite fruitful, it has led us away from attempting to place all such groups on any single continuum which might involve structure as well as culture. Specifically, the concept of "gang" has either been used loosely to include all groups of lower class male adolescents or has been omitted altogether. This paper maintains that the concept of gang still has considerable utility as a category for research. This paper will be presented in five parts: (1) an analysis of the concept as used in the past into a set of empirical variables; (2) a description of a method used to get data on these variables; (3) a presentation of data relative to these variables; (4) an analysis of the correlation of these variables; and (5) an attempt to place gangs on continue representing variables found in small groups in other contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One significant way of viewing the life of an individual is in relation to what has been termed his life course. This has two components— life goal and career. Life goals are those aims which have highest value, can be attained only after a relatively protracted series of activities, and become the person's reason for existence. The series of activities engaged in to achieve these goals constitutes a career. The life goals give purpose and meaning to one's life, the career directs and organizes life. relatively little scientific research has been undertaken on the third and fourth stages of middle age. The present paper deals with the results of a study of the life course in middle age. The middle age adjustments described in the paper are found in the U.S. and can be shown to depend upon the nature of American culture. Two cultural factors stand out. In the first place, the social organization is mobile so that more individuals aspire to life goals which will improve their class position. In such cases, the pursuit of the chosen life course involves a good deal of conscious effort, the individual is constantly aware of the great amount of time and energy he has invested in his career.

The article discusses the second experiment being done on the cardiac responses of infants in the U.S. The results of the previous experiment had clearly revealed that the effect of repeated stimulation is response decrement and is directly related to age. In addition, the younger infants showed less decrement than the older infants. The subjects of the present study are consisting of infants with different age groups. The procedure described in the previous experiment was used in this experiment. Electrodes were attached to the subjects to obtain the cardiac response. The cardiac responses are then recorded both on a punched paper-tape system and on a polygraph. The results of this experiment are also emphasized in the article.

This paper describes a short method of computing the intrinsic growth rate which yields more accurate estimates than other methods which have similar information requirements. The procedure is recommended when hand or desk calculation of the intrinsic growth rate is necessary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper evaluates hypotheses which incorporate designated socioeconomic variables and male age specific incidences of labor force participation. Salient independent variables include education, net migration, unemployment, and earnings. The multiple regression method of analysis is utilized with 100 Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas comprising the basic units of a cross-sectional analysis. Regression results generally substantiate hypotheses and concur with the findings of previous investigators. But, in contrast to earlier studies, education and net migration emerge as leading determinants of area! labor force patterns; and regression results for men in central age groups are impressive both in terms of the frequency of statistically significant relationships and size of co- efficients of determination. These departures from, the results of past research are possibly due to the implementation of a more meaningful and rigorous methodology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

If the pattern of fertility, mortality and interregional migration exhibited by the United States population during 1950-60 were to continue in the future, the proportions of persons in the various age groups and regions would fluctuate from decade to decade. These fluctuations would become less marked with time, however, and eventually all the proportions would stabilize at certain fixed values. This collection of values may be called a stable age by region composition corresponding to the given schedule of fertility, mortality and migration. The same phenomenon may be observed when individuals move between socioeconomic categories as, for example, socioeconomic status or educational attainment levels. The substantial differences between these various situations conceal remarkable similarities. In each case the continued operation of schedules of fertility, mortality and mobility between categories may result in a stable composition. The purpose of this paper is to shed some light on the nature of these stable compositions, on the interrelation between their various components, and on their relation to the patterns of fertility, mortality and mobility which generate them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Even though a single summary index of mortality can never replace the set of age-specific death rates, it has been found to be extremely useful for a wide variety of purposes. Such indexes are generally one of two types: aggregative indexes, such as directly standardized rates which reflect absolute differences between corresponding age-specific mortality rates; and average of relatives indexes which reflect proportional differences between those rates. The choice of index depends upon the purposes for which it is to be used, and is important as different indexes can produce very different results. While directly standardized rates are widely used, they depend upon the selection of an appropriate standard population and give disproportionately heavy weight to the high ages. Average of relatives indexes give equal weight to all ages, but are infrequently used as no index of that type has gained wide acceptability. This paper recommends the use of the geometric mean of the age-specific mortality rates as such an index, and shows that this index is readily calculable, unbiased, needs no standard population, is directly comparable to all other indexes so calculated, and accurately reflects exponential mortality patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper a method to investigate the dependence of age structure and growth rate on a given sequence of fertility and mortality schedules under the conditions of unchanging mortality and absence of migration is discussed. The method consists in projecting an arbitrary population classified by age to the ends of successive periods assuming that a given age pattern of mortality will remain without change and that a given sequence of fertility schedules will repeatedly operate on the population in a cyclical fashion. It is shown that after a sufficiently large number of repetitions of the cycle, the shifts in age structure between the ends of successive periods and the changes in the growth of the different age groups from one period to the next show a cyclical pattern. Formulas are derived expressing the above changes in terms of a sequence of k growth multipliers, k being the number of schedules in the fertility sequence, and the survival rates in the mortality schedule. A numerical illustration of the theory is given using fertility data from Finland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For a clear understanding of the inherent changes in mortality with advance in age, it is necessary to observe the experience of generations rather than the cross-section of period experience. In fact, the latter may produce a misleading picture as can be illustrated in the case of tuberculosis. Period experience pointed to a rise in tuberculosis death rates with advance in age, whereas generation experience indicates a decline with aging. The present paper proposes the study of mortality changes of all generations existing at one period to a subsequent period. Some characteristics and trends in the changes in generation mortality of white males and white females since 1900 are discussed. It is pointed out, in particular, that since World War II white males have been experiencing a rapidly increasing rise in generation mortality with the approach of midlife. A comparison of generation mortality changes from 1950 to 1960 among countries of traditionally low mortality shows that only males in the other English-speaking countries may be undergoing the same experience as white males in the United States upon the approach of midlife. It is not evident in the Scandinavian countries and the Netherlands and in the other countries. The reason for these differences is not apparent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This paper presents the results of an analysis of the major causes of death and their relative importance in various age groups of children admitted to Mulago Hospital over two years. The shortcoming of such results is that they are not representative of the deaths in the community. However, they provide needed information before country-wide vital statistics become available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents data using an observational technique, APPROACH, which describes the behaviors of young children in naturalistic social situations. Emitted behaviors are recorded on a tape recorder, transcribed, and then coded numerically for computer analysis. Results of assessments of information processing for children ranging in age from 1 year 3 months to 4 years 6 months show substantial changes in the way age groups handle information. The technique is structured to provide data on the incidence of growth-fostering or growth-inhibiting behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The conceptions individuals have of themselves as young, middle-aged, or old are, of course, related to their actual age. People in their sixties are certainly more likely than people in their thirties to think of themselves as old. But the variations in age identification between persons in the same age group and the similarities between those whose actual age differs indicate that chronological age is only a limiting condition and does not fully explain the changes in age identification that occur in the course of the individual's life span. In this paper, two topics will be discussed: first, the relative influence of chronological age and age identification on other aspects of the self-image of older persons, and second, some of the social factors that hasten or forestall changes in age identification among older people. Of course, the likelihood that people consider themselves old rather than middle-aged steadily increases as they grow older. Under 65, only 18 per cent define themselves as old, between 65 and 70, 37 per cent do so, but in the age group of 70 and over this proportion rises to 59 per cent.

This paper reports on the first of a series of investigations we are attempting on this topic. Because games are social in nature, we assume that they mediate and shape the mutual socialization which is occurring in peer groups. Hence the type, frequency, and social context in which games are played may be important for understanding differential socialization outcomes. Given that there are important differences in the socialization process within racial groupings, it was decided to ask whether similar differences occur with regard to games. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The instrumental-expressive differentiation, employed extensively by Talcott Parsons, has been applied to the field of voluntary associations by several writers. Thus, Lundberg, Komarovsky, and McInery wrote of instrumental, mixed, and leisure associations in an early study, and Rose concerned himself with two types of associations, the social influence group and the expressive group. This means of classifying voluntary associations has appeared recently in at least one introductory sociology textbook. A recent impetus to the use of the instrumental-expressive categorization in this field was the publication by Gordon and Babchuk of a typology of associations utilizing this concept. They define the ideal type of instrumental association as differing from the ideal type of expressive association in the following three ways. (1) The member of the expressive association achieves immediate and continuing gratification from taking part in the organization's activities. The instrumental association member may even find the group's activities distasteful, but he will get satisfaction from the knowledge that they help to accomplish certain long-range goals. In other words, personal gratification is more remote (in terms of time) from participation in the group's activities for the member of the instrumental group than the member of the expressive group. (2) The activities of the instrumental association tend to be externally oriented, whereas those of the expressive association are focused inward. Expressive organizations "perform a function primarily for the individual participants through activities confined and self-contained within the organization itself…. In contrast, the major function and orientation of the instrumental organization are related to activities which take place outside the organization." (3) The activities of members of expressive associations represent ends in themselves, while, for instrumental association members, participation in the group's activities is seen as a means of accomplishing external, long-range goals. The major questions raised in this paper are whether members of instrumental associations differ predictably from members of expressive associations regarding (1) the manner in which persons become members of associations and (2) their involvement in primary group situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper demonstrates the aging process that has an impact on party affiliation that is independent of any generational factors. Many characteristics related to age can be explained in terms of aging or generations or both. When variations are observed in the political behavior of age groups, it is particularly difficult to judge which factor should be stressed. Possibly there has been a greater tendency, in the case of party affiliation, to emphasize generations. The best way to demonstrate an aging effect would be to control the factor of historical experience. Panels of respondents interviewed at successive points in time and at different life-span locations is ideal. On both available measures of party affiliation, aging seems to produce a shift toward Republicanism in the period from 1946 to 1958. Although identification effects may vary somewhat at different points in the life cycle, the pattern appears to be linear on both measures. With voting, the aging-Republican hypothesis seems to be most pronounced in middle age groups. Aging and generational theories therefore complement each other in explaining why older groups are often more Republican.

This paper investigates determinants of school enrollment and school performance of children in the United States. School enrollment here refers to whether a child is or is not enrolled in school, and school performance refers to whether an enrolled child is behind, with, or ahead of his age group in years of schooling completed. The investigation is based on data from the 1960 Census. Variables describing age, color, sex, rural-urban status, education of parents, and income of parents are used to explain variation in school enrollment and school performance across the school age population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International comparisons of vital statistics must be kept in perspective. Infant mortality is of great interest in this connection. Apparently conflicting views can be clarified by placing them in the proper context and this paper endeavors to do so. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Male and female net reproduction rates calculated from a given actual population generally yield different, i.e. inconsistent, annual rates of intrinsic growth. This inconsistency is due to the nature of the sex-age distribution of the population. The paper examines first the conditions which are necessary and sufficient for a population to yield consistent male and female rates, and secondly the factors which prevent actual population conforming to the conditions for consistency. These factors are shown to relate to the past behaviour of fertility, mortality, masculinity at birth and, in particular, to the effects on populations of external disturbances like wars and migrations. A detailed analysis of the importance of the various factors in causing inconsistencies between male and female reproduction rates is made by examining over seventy census populations and the importance of the magnitudes of the inconsistencies is indicated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]