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The major hypothesis explored by this paper is that managers of large enterprises--public or private, in any context --have an increasingly urgent socio-humanistic responsibility to create self-actualizing organizations which will assure to the maximum extent possible, the transcendence of human values. The major thesis of the paper is that general systems insights, cybernetic science and computer technology provide the basis for achievement of this paramount objective. Over two decades ago Norbert Wiener depicted the human degredation potentially inherent in the cybernetic approach to organizational and institutional design. The substance of such concerns may perhaps now be encapsulated by the question: Are we presently pursuing a witless decision path where the sole parameter is "What is possible technologically?" as we yesterday appeared only to ask, "Does it make sense economically?" [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Christopher Bennett Becker, of Yale University, has written the preface and the annotations Howard Becker's Presidential address. His painstaking and scrupulous preparation of the manuscript provides both the essential substance of the address itself and a felicitous introduction in the spirit of Professor Becker's own work. Howard Becker was deeply and persistently concerned with "the historical process;" his contributions to its analysis include studies of both ancient and modern societies, hut always with a view to more realistic understanding of the present social order and of man's possibilities in shaping the future. This paper illustrates, once more, these interests. Professor Becker would have been heartened, perhaps, by the fact that his paper is one of several on social change included in this issue of the Review. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the attempts by the rulers of the Ottoman empire to modernize the society--by modernizing the bureaucracy to implement reforms needs as: promotion of Ottomanism as a counter ideology to nationalism, reform of provincial administration, and an Ottoman constitution. The reformers were so strongly committed to Ottoman values, that they could not become committed to the radical social and political changes required for modernization. As a result, the changes made in the bureaucracy only increased the ascriptive orientation of the society, and continued the authoritarian rule. Commitment to fundamental social and political change would seem to be among the conditions for bureaucrats to help effect modernization in underdeveloped countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses conflict and congruence related to tradition and modernity. In the decades following World War II, Social Science has recaptured an interest in the study of social changes affecting total societies. The emergence of new nations and their quickened aspirations toward economic betterment and equality of citizenship have confronted scholars with the task of understanding the past and the present and foretelling the future of the non- European countries. The study of social change cannot avoid some variant of a before and after sequence in which institutions and cultural attributes characterizing a past are seen as being replaced or modified during the present and in motion toward new relationships and values that will be realized in the future. A distinction between tradition and modernity has been at the center of the analytical models that have attempted to describe and understand these changes. This distinction represents an old stream of thinking in social science. It was influential in the nineteenth century and has left its residue in the perspectives of many social analysts.

The article is a reply by the author to his critics Leonard G. Bowe and Bryan L. Boulier on his article "Economic Development, Modernization and Economic Behavior." The author states that, both critics object to the choice of indicators for the measurement of economic well being and modernization. The concept of economic development has increasingly come under question as "the factor" of change necessary to bring about changes in the levels of demographic behavior among populations. The use of gross national producer as an indicator of modernization was prompted by the fact that it was a good measure of the productive capacity of the systems. The second problem discussed by each of the critics is that of multicollinearity. It reflects the level of economic well being, independent of the structural complexity of society, and also reflects the general level of structural complexity independent of the economic dimension. There is no clear distinction between medical and nonmedical inputs, and between the latter and other factors.

This article examines the utility of distinguishing between two types of western impact, namely westernization and modernization, as in the case of Sinhalese Buddhism. The most significant changes in Ceylon have allegedly been externally induced by virtue of Ceylon's subordinate relationship with the imperial powers of Portugal, Holland, and subsequently Great Britain and other western nations. The role of the Sinhalese laity in the Buddhist resurgence and national political developments, was preordained by factors and conditions originating in realms beyond their own immediate control. The Buddhist laity, as other Ceylonese, have been creatures of external, western influences even though they have tried to respond originally and creatively to such influences. Apparently, there have been influential internal factors as well. Nevertheless, the single most important factors, the necessary but not sufficient conditions, determining the present economic, political and religious situations in Ceylon were externally induced and indigenously cultivated. One source of confusion is the fact that modernity is still usually both sought and sold as a total package. The social institutions and cultural traditions of the technically advanced societies are sent along with the technology.

The article presents a study carried out to test the relationship between communication behavior and certain indicators of attitudinal modernity. It was based on the hypothesis that mass media use and a favorable evaluation of the media are related to a modern view of the world. The indicators of modernity in this instance are attitudinal, and the data are generally supportive of the hypothesis. This is not to imply a causal nexus; neither the strength of the correlations nor the design of the study permits the interpretation that mass media use and the attribution of trust to impersonal channels of communication causes a rupture with tradition and a greater affinity to the value orientations of urban social systems. However, the study is circumscribed in several ways. The attitudinal indicators of modernity and the indices of communication behavior were constructed ad hoc, and are, with the exception of the birth control scale, single-item measures. Also, tests of reliability and validity have not been made.

The author of this article shares insights into the Harvard Project on the Sociocultural Aspects of Development, a comparative study of the differential impact of varying modernizing settings on attitudes and values. The Harvard Project on the Sociocultural Aspects of Development is a comparative study (in Chile, Argentina, Israel, Nigeria, India and Pakistan) of the differential impact of varying modernizing settings on attitudes and values. Sustained development seems to depend on the wide diffusion through the population of certain attitudes, and values. United States positions to act, and habits of doing things which, in combination, characterize the "industrial man" and differentiate him from the man of tradition who makes up the bulk of the population in most underdeveloped countries. The author notes that sustained development seems to depend on the wide diffusion through the population of certain attitudes, values, dispositions to act, and habits of doing things. The working assumption is that experience in a modern industrial enterprise will induce changed attitudes, which, on the whole, will make men better-adapted and more effective citizens of a modern society.

A study of 67 entrepreneurs and 48 nonentrepreneurs from two subcultures showed that while n Achievement, n Power, efficacy, and overall modernity were positively correlated with entry into enterprise, a factor analytically derived scale of entrepreneurial competence correlated with only education and religious modernity. Need Affiliation showed no association with either entry or competence. Results are consistent with the hypothesis that the social and psychological skills required by entrepreneurial competence are different from those required by entry into entrepreneurial activity. The subcultural differences in correlates of competence were suggestive, but not significant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on the relationship between modernity of students in a Puerto Rican high school and their academic performance, peers and parents. Implementation of modernization at the societal level lies within the province of public policy As pointed out previously, one of the routes to a modem society lies in the acquisition of trained manpower, or the recruitment or development of modem individuals to be members of that society. The sample used in this study was the entire student body of the Ponce de Leon High School in San Juan, Puerto Rico, during the academic year of 1967-68. The student parent modernity score correlations shows that for all of the students and parents in both the top and bottom quartile samples were significant only for those students in the top quartile of academic performance and their parents. It is probably also only surmise to suggest that students with higher academic performance are able to communicate abstract ideas more easily, to their parents, as well as to others, but if this is so these significant correlations may in part reflect an ability of the students to communicate attitudes with their parents.

This article focuses on the impact of education on individual modernity in Tunisia. The most prevalent view of the role of education in the processes of development and modernization is centered on those aspects of the educative process, which prepare individuals for the occupational world. The major focus of this article is to determine the role of various forms of education in the acquisition of attitudinal modernity in Tunisia of particular interest are formal schooling experiences within the established education system, and vocational training which has recently taken on importance in the preparation of young Tunisians for the world of work. This suggests that it is more than just the cognitive learning, which takes place in the schools which makes the schools a major source of modernity. Two characteristics of the schooling process in Tunisia seem particularly salient here the organization of the schooling experience whereby the pupil is integrated into a large-scale organization, organized around lines not too dissimilar from those of a large-scale bureaucracy; and the ability of the formal schooling process to confer status-status particularly valued in the modem sector of Tunisian society-upon its graduates and leavers In a country like Tunisia.

It is suggested that the predictive power and pragmatic value of social research for the planning and implementation of modernization programs may be improved by focusing on the traditional village as the major unit of analysis, rather than on large-scale societies or individuals. Study of 30 traditional villages in Israel revealed four dimensions of modernity. The dimensions were specified as: (1) production; (2) social-psychology; (3) environment-orientation; and (4) space. Partial Order Scalogram Analysis of these dimensions showed the villages conformed to two empirical types, with different modernization processes for each. An analytic breakdown of the two processes yielded some practical recommendations for the planned modernization of these villages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

THE TEXT of this comment has pointed to three basic problems in the analysis of Sly and Chi which tend to invalidate their conclusion. All of these are serious issues that should have been dealt with by the authors. The two most serious of these issues, however, are the specification of variables and the existence of multicollinearity between variables which makes it impossible to interpret the regression results with any degree of confidence. Further work in this area may prove fruitful if a means can be devised to develop variables that measure the separate dimensions of modernization and economic development. However, these processes may be so interconnected that truly "independent" variables of an aggregate type do not exist. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The performance of women in their traditional family-centered roles is suggested as an appropriate site for assessing the impact of social change on the status of women in Muslim countries. When differences in modernism of attitudes and behavior of 803 Turkish wives were examined, the type of community background, amount of education, age at marriage, and exposure to mass communications media could be formed into an orderly system of influence which determined how modern or traditional a woman would be as a wife. In predicting the carry-over of modernism into other areas of behavior, the importance of the situational context of behavior was underlined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship of industrialization to some family-linked attitudes and behavior of women were examined in five markedly different Brazilian communities. Each community was selected to represent a point on a rural-urban-industrial continuum. Data were collected through interviews with 816 married, fertile women about their attitudes and behavior as regards their roles as women, wives and mothers. Interview items were factor analyzed and two indexes of modernity derived. Women in industrial communities were found, on the average, to have a greater sense of personal efficacy, enjoy more egalitarian relationships with their husbands, place a greater emphasis on independence and achievement in the socialization of their children and perceived the world in a more activistic perspective than women in nonindustrial milieu. Modernity in women tends to increase with level of education, skill of occupation, social status and membership in voluntary associations; it is inversely related to family size, both preferred and actual. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the measuring of cross-national norms. The scaling instruments that will determine cross-national similarities and differences in any part of the world including Latin America should show those important commonalities and variations in cultural patterns that make for significant normative differences such that the culture of one nation may be more accurately compared with another. Within the past five years there have been numerous attempts and several studies have proposed multiple-item measures of modernity. The author developed an initial battery of fifteen rating scales to measure international patterns and norms. In contrast to the modernization scales, this scaling effort is directed toward a general battery of items with applicability to both developed and undeveloped countries. The scales were progressively broadened to provide a highly universal instrument capable of detecting a wide range of international patterns and norms in or between various countries of the world.

The article discusses modernization and the emergence of volunteer organizations. It focuses on formal volunteer organizations as units and on individual memberships only insofar as they are indices of the prevalence of formal volunteer organizations (FVO). The growth of modern industrial society entails the growth of a type of relationship that may be termed contingent as opposed to ascriptive. FVO and the relationships they involve are by definition contingent, and so also are formal work organizations and formal coercive organizations. An attempt to determine the relationship between modernization measures and FVO prevalence, a multiple regression analysis was performed. The resulting regression equation produces a multiple correlation of 86, accounting for about 74% of the variance in interest articulation by associational groups for the approximately 100 countries involved. This is a very substantial result indeed, indicating that the present measure of FVO prevalence is much more strongly associated with measures of modernization than with any other kinds of variables.

The article discusses measures of individual modernity. The concept of modernity has been applied to a variety of social and cultural units societies, civilizations, cultures, communities and particular institutions. Sociologist Leonard W. Doob developed a set of scales for the measurement of "psychological modernization." He does not suggest that his scales should be used with other populations, although he implies that most of the eighty items come from scales developed from Western populations and expresses the belief elsewhere that less civilized people everywhere share the same attributes. Another sociologist Joseph Kahl studied modern and traditional values in Brazil and Mexico. The results of the factor analysis, together with the outcome of the test of spuriousness, leads Kahl to conclude that the syndrome of modernism posited in the theoretical literature can be demonstrated empirically. In the absence of unambiguous evidence of convergence to a modern structure and culture, the proposition that there is convergence remains an assumption, rooted perhaps in certain models of functional analysis and evolution.

A variety of scales of individual modernity have been developed to measure a universal set of attitudes and behaviors which presumably better fit men for life in modern society. The present study attempts to assess empirically the equivalence, reliability and validity of four such scales constructed by Smith and Inkeles, Kahl, Schnaiberg, and Armer. Data were collected from multiple-wave interviews of a sample of lower-to-middle class, ethnically heterogeneous, married males in the Uptown area of Chicago. The results indicate that the scales (a) are moderately equivalent (intercorrelations range from .40 to .64) despite differences in dimensions, items, and scale construction procedures, (b) have moderately high Internal consistency (ralpha .56 to .76) and test-retest (r11 = .66 to .81) reliabilities, and (c) have low discriminant validity with respect to anomia, alienation, and to a less extent, socioeconomic status. Low construct validity persists when corrections or tests are made for attenuation due to unreliability, acquiescent response, and other possible interpretations. In short, the modernity scales tend to predict scores on anomia, alienation, and socio- economic status about as well as they predict other measures of modernity. Conversely, measures of anomia and alienation appear to predict modernity scores almost as well as do the modernity scales. The findings call into serious question the meaningfulness of the construct and/or measurement of modernity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Society as a whole has been viewed historically from many perspectives. It has been envisaged among other ways as the great society, the acquisitive society, and the affluent society. Contemporary society, whether observed globally, nationally or locally, is realistically characterized as the chaotic society and best understood as the anachronistic society. Contemporary society can be best understood when It is viewed as an anachronistic society. To be sure, society at any time, at least during the period of recorded history, has been an anachronistic society. For throughout the millennia of the historical era, society, at any instant in time, comprised layers of culture which, like geological strata, reflected the passage and deposits of time. In some ways chaos in contemporary society differs from that in earlier societies only in degree. But there are a number of unique factors in contemporary chaos which make it more a difference in kind. First, contemporary society, as the most recent, contains the greatest number of cultural layers and therefore, the greatest potential for confusion and disorder.

Quantitative, comparative studies of violent conflict within societies constitute a growing subfield of political science. Some common assumptions of these studies are the premises that conflict events have similar properties and causes across all types of contemporary nations, and that these properties and causes are susceptible to reliable and valid measurement. Convergence is apparent in some results: violent conflict intensifies in periods of rapid socioeconomic change; the transition to socioeconomic "modernity" helps lessen revolutionary activity but not turmoil; increased coerciveness by regimes tends under some specifiable circumstances to exacerbate civil conflict; and there is little relationship between the incidence of domestic and foreign conflict as cause, effect, or alternatives. Prospects and problems for such studies are briefly evaluated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses tradition, modernity and communalism in modernization of Japan. The terms, tradition and modernity like modernization and Westernization are bound up with value preferences and social ideology, and are consequently less than useful as analytical concepts in social science. Sociologist R. P. Dore has counseled against a special theory of modernization, and advises a study of the processes on the basis of standard concepts pertaining to social change in any historical context. This approach is especially appropriate in the case of Japan. Perhaps no other society modernized so effectively on the basis of deliberate effort, planned and carried out by sophisticated elites. The process was not an invention of the late 19th century, but represented an old Japanese proclivity. Japanese intellectuals, like the planners, have approached the change process with perspectives derived from a variety of past and present cultural sources. The most fundamental observation one can make of the Japanese modernizing outlook is that while a culturally conservative position has generally dominated, there also has existed an important liberal position throughout the history of the modern era.

The article focuses on movements and ideologies related to traditionalism and modernization. In the contact between the Western and non-Western worlds over the period of the past three hundred years, complex technological societies have come into contact with a variety of simple social systems whose technological organization did not permit effective resistance to external control. The establishment of control by foreign authorities initiated a vast transition from traditionalism to modernity whose impact is still being felt on a worldwide basis. This article examines this transition in terms of movements and ideologies generated as a result of such contact. Its approach is inductive; from a single case, that of Tanganyika which will be described in some detail, a model will be formulated. Although a general model can be constructed, there are a number of limitations in its applicability. Socially, the model is most applicable to those situations of contact where the indigenous societies were relatively simple, small in scale and locally based. The model is less applicable to indigenous societies of considerable complexity. Spatially, this means that the model is most applicable in Africa and Oceania and most, but not all, of Asia.

A discussion of the modernization of enterprises in Japan always involves an analysis and evaluation of the changes following the three historical events which have forced Japan to face the outside world, namely, the Meiji Restoration (1868) (a), the end of World War II, and the present situation. Actually, these came, respectively, in the forms of an introduction of Western civilization, reconstruction and technological innovation, and liberalization of international trade. The same can be said in any discussion concerning the way in which Japanese management has absorbed the Western way, which seems to Japanese managers always to be modern and new. In many Japanese management practices, therefore, translations of American terms are used. However, the meanings are not always the same as those used in the West. in other words, it is not a mere "imitation." it is not a coexistence of the old and the new either — it is well "Japanized." In the following article the author reviews this peculiar process of modernization and seeks a new way, which survival in world business competition seems to demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The social institutions of modern technological culture often fail to provide adequate opportunity for the exchange of emotions and personal feelings of affect and esteem. The widespread development of alternative institutions such as sensitivity training can be seen as an attempt to compensate for the scarcity of this type of interpersonal communication. Reasons for this scarcity are examined in terms of a structural model of individual and societal resource differentiation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents author's comments on analysis of his "theoretical model, which describe the mechanism of recruitment to Christianity and its implications for social change" by sociologists Robert Cameron Mitchell and Donald George Morrison. According to the author the most important problem of Mitchell and Morrison's reanalysis is the misinterpretation they make of the logic which linked Parts I and II of author's article. The theoretical section or Part I dealt with a psychological explanation of change in which Africans, by learning the "role" of Christian, may have been influenced toward roles and attitudes characteristic of political and social modernity. The author saw no way of "testing" this theory with available data. Attitude surveys, as author suggested could probably best test the model. At the very least, reliable time series data for individual countries would be needed. Since data of neither type were available, the author tried to collate data which might at least be relevant to falsifying his theory.

The article reports a pilot study relating psychosocial modernity to the initial cross-cultural accommodation of foreign visitors to the U.S. Since the U.S. is a highly developed nation, it was hypothesized that being psychosocially modern would facilitate the visitors' accommodation. Modernity data were collected as an adjunct to the authors' evaluation of an orientation program that the foreign visitors began three to six days after their arrival in the U.S. Modernity was measured by a group-administered 15-item scale. A typical item was a question related to years of education children should have. The pilot study sample consisted of 137 government-sponsored, English-speaking trainees from 25 developing nations. The average respondent, a married male in his early 30's with 16 years of education, came to the U.S. for academic or technical training. All of the significant correlations between modernity and sojourn variables were in the direction suggested by the modernity syndrome. Since the modernity scale is multidimensional, it is understandable that correlations with the visitors' experiences were not high.