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Managed retreat in the form of voluntary flood-buyout programs provides homeowners with an alternative to repairing and rebuilding residences that have sustained severe flood damage. Buyout programs are most economically efficient when groups of neighboring properties are acquired because they can then create unfragmented flood control areas and reduce the cost of providing local services. However, buyout programs in the United States often fail to acquire such efficient, unfragmented spaces, for various reasons, including long administrative timelines, the way in which buyout offers are made, desires for community cohesion, and attachments to place. Buyout programs have relied primarily on posted price mechanisms involving offers that are accepted or rejected by homeowners with little or no negotiation. In this paper, we describe four alternative strategies that have been used successfully in land-preservation agricultural–environmental contexts to increase acceptance rates and decrease fragmentation: agglomeration bonuses, reverse auctions, target constraints, and hybrid approaches. We discuss challenges that may arise during their implementation in the buyout context—transaction costs, equity and distributional impacts, unintended consequences, and social pressure—and recommend further research into the efficiency and equity of applying these strategies to residential buyout programs with the explicit goal of promoting spatial coordination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Planning transport infrastructure development involves high levels of uncertainty due to socioeconomic, environmental, and technological changes. Methodologies currently used in transport planning often have minimal consideration for adaptiveness, leading to costly redesigns or cancellation of entire projects. Presented herein is the investigation of the applicability of dynamic adaptive policy pathways, which is a methodology predominantly used in the field of flood-risk planning, to long-term transport infrastructure planning. Specifically, the paper investigates whether this methodology could facilitate ongoing adaptation to variations in service demand and capacity. It demonstrates this by examining future demand and capacity of road and rail travel between Manchester, United Kingdom, and London using publicly available data and information sources. The study shows that dynamic adaptive policy pathways is useful for identifying periods of time of significant capacity vulnerability for the examined transport network in the coming decade. The method is demonstrated to be valuable for identifying the points in time when policy-makers will have to make decisions and for assessing the impact of transport mode switching. This can have implications of cost-saving and improved service delivery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change has a different impact on each member of society. To reduce the damage caused by climate change, adaptation activities are being initiated, such as expanding the capacity of social infrastructures, and each stakeholder wants these adaptations to work in his or her favor. Therefore, a methodology is needed to determine adaptation measures that are most beneficial to all members of society. In this paper, a framework is proposed for producing an adaptation strategy that minimizes conflict between stakeholders. This framework casts the process of organizing climate change adaptations as a game and defines each community member as a stakeholder, each adaptation measure as a strategy, and the minimization of loss from future climate change as a payoff. In a case study involving sea level rise in Suncheon Bay, Korea, this framework is used to generate an optimal plan for minimizing conflicts while considering the losses of the central government, local governments, and local communities. The game theoretic results from the proposed framework enable a balanced distribution of responsibilities among stakeholders to achieve infrastructure adaptation to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the results of a study on the impact of climate change on road infrastructure in South Africa. The approach used built on previous work associated with the UNU-WIDER Development under Climate Change (DUCC) effort, emphasizing understanding of the impact of climate change on roads. This paper illustrates how climate change effects on road infrastructure can be evaluated at a national and provincial level to produce quantitative estimates of climate change from multiple future scenarios. The results of the study indicate that the national-level climate change cost impact in South Africa will vary between US$116.8 million and US$228.7 million annually in the 2050 decade for the median and maximum climate scenarios if a no-adaptation policy action is taken. Conversely, if a proactive adaptation action is taken, these costs can be reduced to US$55.7 million. The savings in costs arising from climate change impacts based on this policy approach is equivalent to building more than 10,000 km of new, secondary paved road by 2050. The analysis focused on the advantage of a proactive policy approach: the upgrade of road infrastructure where climate impacts will exceed current design and maintenance standards. A stressor-response methodology created by the writers is briefly explained, including the application of 54 potential climate futures using general circulation models (GCMs) approved by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). This paper focuses on provincial-level impacts of both a proactive and a reactive approach. Decadal and average annual costs are detailed through 2100. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adaptation to climate change requires careful evaluation of infrastructure performance under future climatic extremes. This study demonstrates how a multidisciplinary approach integrating geotechnical engineering, hydrology, and climate science can be employed to quantify site-specific impacts of climate change on geotechnical infrastructure. Specifically, this paper quantifies the effects of changes in future streamflow on the performance of an earthen levee in Sacramento, California, considering multiple modes of failure. The streamflows for historical (1950–2000) and projected (2049–2099) scenarios with different recurrence intervals were derived from routed hydrological simulations driven by bias-corrected global climate models. The historical and future flood levels were then applied in a set of transient coupled finite-element seepage and limit equilibrium slope stability analyses to simulate the levee subjected to extreme streamflow. Variability in hydraulic and mechanical properties of soils was addressed using a Monte Carlo sampling method to evaluate and compare the probability of failure of the levee under different historical and future climate scenarios. Three individual modes (underseepage, uplift, and slope stability) along with lower and upper bounds for the combined mode of failure were examined. The results showed that incorporating future floods into levee failure analysis led to considerable reductions in the mean factor of safety and increases in the levee's probability of failure, suggesting that risk assessment based on historical records can significantly underestimate the levee's failure probability in a warming climate. Despite inherent uncertainties in future projections and substantial variability across climate models, evaluating infrastructure against projected extremes offers insights into their likely performance for the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adaptation of existing infrastructure is a response to climate change that can ensure a viable, safe, and robust transportation network. However, deep uncertainties associated with climate change pose significant challenges to adaptation planning. Specifically, current transportation planning methods are ill-equipped to address deep uncertainties, as they rely on designing responses to a few predicted futures, none of which will occur exactly as envisioned. In this paper, we propose using dynamic adaptive planning (DAP), an emerging general strategic planning method, to account for deep uncertainties by building flexibility and learning mechanisms into plans that enable continuous adaptation throughout implementation. This paper first reviews uncertainty in general, introduces what is meant by deep uncertainty, and then introduces DAP. Then, DAP is applied to a case study of the Oakland approach to the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge, which was initially assessed under the 2010-2011 FHWA Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment Pilot program, to illustrate how DAP could be applied as a response to climate change in the context of evolving transportation infrastructure adaptation planning practices in the United States. We conclude that DAP is well suited to account for the deep uncertainties of climate change in transportation and infrastructure planning, and provide suggestions for further research to better apply DAP in this field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change adaptation in the infrastructure sector has received increased attention in recent years, but local governments and asset managers frequently find it difficult to identify the most suitable and efficient adaptation options. This paper proposes a framework for assessing the costs and benefits of infrastructure adaptation at the local level. The framework consists of three steps: (1) selecting target infrastructure and adaptation options, (2) identifying climate factors, and (3) performing an economic assessment algorithm simulation. The suggested economic assessment algorithm considers both gradual and extreme impacts of climate change and provides an integrated economic assessment over the lifecycle of the infrastructure. Three representative concentration pathways climate scenarios are used to estimate the cost of future damage and the conditions of the assessed infrastructure. A case study is undertaken examining adaptation of an erosion control system in a mountain watershed with an 85-year analysis period that yields a comprehensive understanding of the application of the suggested framework. This research is expected to guide decision making in prioritizing the most cost-effective adaptation strategies for infrastructure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes current practice in road surface and subsurface drainage in Sweden and analyzes the necessity for adaptation of the planning, construction, operation, maintenance and monitoring of road drainage measures to climate change. Based on a survey of professionals working with various aspects of road drainage, the study sought to identify: (1) problems experienced concerning road drainage, focusing on the current Swedish climate; (2) future problems regarding climate change impacts such as flooding and high flows; and (3) suggestions for adaptation measures concerning road drainage systems, taking future climate change into account. Suggested improvements concerning management and planning included clarification of responsibility for drainage issues, better overview of the location and condition of drainage facilities, inclusion of drainage system maintenance in procurement of operation contracts, maintenance plans for drainage facilities, and monitoring and inspection of drainage measures. Suggestions concerning drainage system construction, operation and maintenance included increasing the capacity of drainage facilities, stabilizing ditch slopes and various measures to prevent clogging of culverts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using survey data from nearly 400 commuters, this paper identifies factors associated with commuter changes after Hurricane Sandy. Adaptations included changing transportation modes, routes, and/or departure times (earlier or later), and canceling trips. Changes were not mutually exclusive and each was considered separately in multivariable binary logit models. Transit commuters were more likely to change modes, cancel the trip, and depart earlier. Women were less likely to change modes or depart later. More children increased the probability of canceling the commute. Telecommuting increased the probability of canceling the trip and decreased that of leaving earlier. Daycare/school closures increased the probability of changing routes. Disaster-recovery implications include (1) some transit users may switch modes, but transit dependents may have to cancel their commutes, which could affect employment, (2) working parents are constrained by child responsibilities and school/childcare recovery, (3) transportation providers should prepare for earlier departures due to delays/crowding, and (4) telecommuting can mitigate delays, but it relies on power and communications, emphasizing the role of multiple infrastructures in community resilience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change will have a significant impact on the hydrological cycle. This paper presents the results of a pilot project for the Yamaska River in Québec. The objective of this project is to evaluate the river's vulnerability to low flows attributable to climate change and to analyze a no-regrets adaptation strategy at locations identified as vulnerable. The vulnerability was evaluated using statistical indicators (low flow indices) based on long-term observations at four locations in the basin. A distributed physically-based hydrological model in use in Québec was calibrated and validated against observed streamflow data to properly represent low flows. Hydrological simulations used seven climate projections provided by the north american regional climate change assessment program (NARCCAP) s project. Also, five members of the canadian regional climate model (CRCM), nested with the coupled global climate model (CGCM) under the special report on emission scenarios (SRES) A2 emission scenario, were run for a reference (1971-2000) period and a future (2041-2070) period. Streamflow simulations indicate a degradation of future low flow conditions, particularly in June and August, when compared to the reference period. In addition, the 7-day low flow value with a 2-year return period (7Q2) and the 7-day low flow value with a 10-year return period (7Q10) decrease by 16-64% and 18-45% respectively. A no-regrets adaptation strategy allowing stakeholders to reduce withdrawal according to alert levels was implemented. Simulations of the application of the no-regrets adaptation strategy reduced the number of days where streamflows are below the Crisis level in the future period by at least 20%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The potential impact of climate change on the existing drainage infrastructure has been an essential aspect of many hydrological studies. Climate change that will increase the intensity of precipitation will also increase the magnitude of the design discharge and thus would probably result in adverse effects on the existing drainage facilities. This paper aims to evaluate the potential impact of rainfall intensity variation due to climate change on the existing drainage infrastructure by investigating whether (1) the stormwater drainage infrastructure designed for preclimate conditions is able to sustain future higher discharges, and (2) new design guidelines are necessary to be established to include the potential rainfall intensity variation due to climate change. A case study was conducted using 34 years of rainfall data (1980-2013) obtained from the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC). These data and the weather scenario data projected by the four run global circulation model (GCMs) under the three emissions scenarios coupled with stochastic weather generator model which generates dailyweather time series statisticallywere used to update the current intensity-duration-frequency curve to reflect the rainfall intensity variation due to climate change. Furthermore, runoff simulation using a storm and sanitary software program was performed to analyze whether the increase in the intensity of rainfall due to climate changewould have an adverse impact on the current drainage systemto convey excess runoff. The results showed thatmost elements of the current drainage infrastructure in the boundary of the study areawere inadequate to convey excess runoff. However, climate change magnifies the problems that already exist in an aging drainage infrastructure. Furthermore, considering the rehabilitation or replacement rates of these aging infrastructures are relatively slow, emphasismust not lie only on the future climate change, but also on identifying the weak spots in the system coupled with, the economic and environmental factors before any changes in design criteria can be recommended due to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transportation system infrastructure in the United States is vital to sustaining the nation's economy, safety, and well-being. In its recent special report, Potential Impacts of Climate Change on U.S. Transportation, the National Research Council concluded that climate change will have significant impacts on transportation systems, affecting design, construction, operation, and maintenance. Furthermore, the report calls for a focus on the problem now through adaptation planning to avoid costly future investments and disruptions to operations. This begins with sharing information, resources, best practices, and lessons learned across jurisdictional lines and among different stakeholders. With this in mind, a select group of stakeholders representing the freight-transportation industry and climate science participated in a summit held at Vanderbilt University in 2011, to reach consensus on the needs and challenges that must be addressed in order for successful adaptation strategies to emerge. This paper presents a brief review of the relevant literature on this topic, shares the outcomes and findings of summit deliberations, and provides recommendations for a path forward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evaluating the suitability of data from global climate models (GCMs) for use as input in water supply models is an important step in the larger task of evaluating the effects of climate change on water resources management such as that of water supply operations. The purpose of this paper is to present the process by which GCMs were evaluated and incorporated into the New York City (NYC) water supply's planning activities and to provide conclusions regarding the overall effectiveness of the ranking procedure used in the evaluation. A suite of GCMs participating in Phase 3 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP3) were evaluated for use in climate change projections in the watersheds of the NYC water supply that provide 90% of the water consumed by NYC. GCM data were aggregated using the seven land-grid points surrounding NYC watersheds, and these data with a daily timestep were evaluated seasonally using probability-based skill scores for various combinations of five meteorological variables (precipitation, average, maximum and minimum temperatures, and wind speed). These are the key variables for the NYC water supply because they affect the timing and magnitude of water, energy, sediment, and nutrient fluxes into the reservoirs as well as in simulating watershed hydrology and reservoir hydrodynamics. We attempted to choose a subset of GCMs based on the average of several skill metrics that compared baseline (20C3M) GCM results to observations. Skill metrics for the study indicate that the skill in simulating the frequency distributions of measured data is highest for temperature and lowest for wind. However, our attempts to identify the best model or subgroup of models were not successful because we found that no single model performs best when considering all of the variables and seasons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The literature on the costing of mitigation measures for reducing impacts of natural hazards is rather fragmented. This paper provides a concise overview of the current state of knowledge in Europe on the costing of mitigation measures for the reduction of natural hazard risks (droughts, floods, storms and induced coastal hazards as well as alpine hazards) and identifies knowledge gaps and related research recommendations. Furthermore, it provides a taxonomy of related mitigation options, classifying them into nine categories: (1) management plans, land-use planning, and climate adaptation; (2) hazard modification; (3) infrastructure; (4) mitigation measures (stricto sensu); (5) communication in advance of events; (6) monitoring and early warning systems; (7) emergency response and evacuation; (8) financial incentives; and (9) risk transfer (including insurance). It is found that the costing of mitigation measures in European and in other countries has almost exclusively focused on estimating direct costs. A cost assessment framework that addresses a range of costs, possibly informed by multiple stakeholders, would provide more accurate estimates and could provide better guidance to decision makers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Enhanced flood hazard due to global warming and climate change imposes an additional threat to safety and serviceability of river crossing bridges. This study proposes an integrated approach to assess how climate change might affect bridge performance under multihazard conditions involving floods and earthquakes. The approach is used for an existing bridge spanning over the San Joaquin River, California. The multihazard impact considering climate change is evaluated in terms of risk and resilience of the bridge. Future flood projections under climate change are obtained from general circulation model simulations in conjunction with a macroscale hydrological model. Enhanced intensities of future design floods are observed to cause higher expected scour at around bridge piers. This resulted in significant rise in risk (−21%) and drop in resilience (−14%) of the bridge, when compared to no climate change scenario, at a specific seismic hazard level. To reduce possible consequences, ripraps are applied around piers as a climate change adaptation measure. Size of the riprap is determined based on the maximum expected design flood flow at the bridge site over the projection period. The applied adaptive measure is observed to be cost-effective through a cost-benefit analysis performed over the remaining bridge service life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is expected to impact both the operational and structural performance of infrastructure such as buildings, roads, and bridges. However, infrastructure design guides widely rely on historical climate data, if any, for informing design requirements. The goal of this research was to explore a methodology for modeling bridge deck design against corrosion attack in a changing climate. Three deterioration stages were simulated to understand the time to deck failure. Corrosion initiation of reinforcing steel was considered by utilizing a deterministic diffusion-based model predicting the time to reinforcement corrosion initiation. Crack initiation and crack growth were also simulated using mechanistic approaches to illustrate the sensitivity of bridge deck deterioration and design service life to changes in bridge deck design and a changing climate across major cities in Canada. The findings indicate that a changing climate has the potential to significantly alter the service life of a bridge deck, but the effect is strongly dependent on the durability design of the bridge deck. It is recommended that bridge designers strive to utilize mechanistic-empirical models that incorporate high-resolution climate data as inputs for better understanding changes in deterioration as a consequence of a nonstationary climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An increase in the number of extreme weather events and gradual shifts in climate parameters due to a changing climate pose a serious threat to the nation's roadway infrastructure. A systematic approach is needed to define risks and assess consequences of climate change, consider the uncertainties, rank priorities, and initiate an adaptation strategy in a cost-effective manner. The objective of this study is to develop a framework that could be used to assess the impact of climate change on pavements in a rational way using either the net present value (NPV) or the real option (RO) approach to compare several options and to make the most prudent decision regarding selecting an option and the time of adopting that option. The NPVapproach will generally go against an investment in cases with high uncertainty, even if they are very promising, and does not take into account the flexibility or decisions that could be implemented on the basis of changing conditions. In contrast, the RO method offers a flexible deferment option when the uncertainties regarding outcomes are resolved to a certain extent. A framework with a step-by-step method for evaluating the feasibility of building roads that are resilient to a changing climate is presented, along with an example. The worked-out example shows that there could be considerable value in using RO analysis, and this value can be leveraged to develop better economic policies for building roads that are resilient to a changing climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate conditions have impacts on performance of infrastructures, and the impacts are expected to increase in the future due to climate change. Future climate conditions should be taken into account in establishing adaptation strategies for infrastructures. However, project-level performance analyses that incorporate climate-change scenarios have not been of major concern in economic assessment. Addressing this issue, this study presents a reliability approach to assess the economic cost and benefit of adapting infrastructure to climate change. Using climate-change scenarios, a deterioration modeling methodology is proposed to reflect the impact of climate conditions on the performance of infrastructure. The gamma process, which has been widely used for modeling monotonic deteriorations, was used within the methodology. Expected damage cost by climate-related risks was also estimated. Decision makers can apply the proposed methodology to the adaptation of various infrastructures under climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The economic feasibility of hydropower depends on the level of energy production, which in turn depends on weather conditions. Changes in runoff volumes directly influence energy production. Therefore, decision makers should take into account different climate change scenarios when making investment decisions for existing hydropower plants. The authors propose a real options-based framework to assess economic benefit of adapting hydropower plants to climate change. The framework enables evaluation of climate change impacts to hydropower. A case study of South Korea shows that investment on adaptation projects creates additional benefit in the regions with increasing precipitation under future climate scenarios. The findings suggest that adaptation projects prevent energy spilling and improve the productivity of hydropower. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water year types (WYTs), whereby years are classified by river runoff quantity compared to historical runoff, are one tool to help make major water management decisions. Increasingly, these decisions include instream flow requirements (IFRs) below dams for river ecosystem management. However, WYTs are typically based on assumptions of stationarity, and are thus rendered less meaningful with climate change. Hydrologic alteration resulting from climate change means that a WYT-based IFR scheme using stationary historical observations might inadvertently result in long-term river management outcomes inconsistent with original water management goals. This study assesses the management implications of assuming hydrologic nonstationarity in a WYT-based IFR scheme in California's upper Yuba River and demonstrates a rolling period of record as a climate adaptation strategy. The existing, nonadaptive water management scheme leads to vastly different possible water allocation outcomes than originally planned for. Results indicate that water year types, if regularly updated, can help maintain historical instream flow distributions. However, gains toward maintaining desired IFRs are obfuscated by future increases in unmanaged reservoir spill. These findings indicate that hydroclimatic uncertainty can partially be accounted for with simple modifications to existing operating rules for reservoirs, though other, risk-based management approaches are also likely needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Uncertainty about the scale of future demand presents a challenge for infrastructure design. The attraction of flexible strategies, incorporating upgrade options that can be exercised when and if required, has been recognized for a long time. The techniques of real options allowed the benefits of flexible strategies to be quantified for the first time. A new and simplified methodology for real options analysis has been developed and implemented in software. It performs evaluation in both cost and environmental impact terms. A case study of a real highway in Spain was evaluated using the new methodology and software. Seven alternative strategies for the roadway (subgrade, base course, and surface course) were evaluated, six with upgrade options that are exercised if the traffic demand crosses specified thresholds. The rate of traffic growth, and also the discount rate for financial evaluation, were treated as uncertain variables. The highway was designed when the Spanish economy was growing strongly and a high roadway specification performed best. Before the highway was built the economy crashed and construction was canceled. Recalculation for the posteconomic shock conditions with lower traffic growth and a higher interest rate favored a lower highway specification with upgrade options. Sensitivity analysis shows how the specification choice varies with the values taken by the uncertain variables. A novel specification was proposed to maximize flexibility when there is high uncertainty about traffic growth, and evaluation showed that it performed better in many conditions. The methodology of evaluating flexible strategies could be used in many applications, including infrastructure for climate change adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural hazards challenge rural communities' livelihoods, but they may also serve as windows of opportunity for the rural poor in the form of new livelihood strategies. In 2007, Hurricane Dean devastated subsistence and commercial agriculture in the Calakmul municipality of Campeche, Mexico. Charcoal production's importance seems to have increased as a result of Mexican forestry policy decisions related to Dean. Household interviews were carried out to determine the livelihood effects of the storm, and results indicate that while many respondents did not acknowledge the hurricane as a driver, a notable production increase was observed subsequent to the event. This research portrays a shift from hybrid swidden and intensive agriculture to that of an alternative forest strategy, situating it as an example of the adaptive capacity to natural hazards experienced by rural people in the developing world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the important role of hydropower in peak electricity management, Middle Eastern countries are actively pursuing development of more hydropower resources by construction of large dams. Nonetheless, climate change is expected to affect the future productivity of hydropower by influencing the hydrologic cycle and different climate variables in the region. Although reactive plans to minimize climate change impacts on hydropower production have been implemented in the developed world, the developing world can still benefit from proactive actions. Studies of climate change impacts before and during implementation of hydropower projects can result in timely responses and adaptation to climate change with a potential of considerable cost savings. This study investigates the potential impacts of climate change on the hydropower systems in the Karkheh River Basin-the third largest river basin in Iran-in terms of potential for hydroelectricity generation. A simulation model is developed to examine how hydropower generation levels vary for different future climate change scenarios in this representative Middle Eastern basin. The obtained results suggest that the existing operation rules and design specifications, developed based on the historical climatic conditions, can lead to inefficient operations of the hydropower in the basin. Because of insignificant streamflow reductions in the short term, hydropower production may not change considerably in the near future. However, a serious hydropower generation deficit is expected in the midterm and long-term horizons in the Karkheh River Basin. Therefore, adaptation to the future climate change conditions and revision of the operation rule curves and design specifications are essential to optimal hydropower operations in this basin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The adaptation of infrastructure to climate change has benefits in the form of reduced disaster damage within the associated area. The beneficiaries of this adaptation are parties who are motivated to take adaptation actions and share the cost of adaptation. However, a standard for investment cost allocation has not been established. This study suggests a framework for allocating the adaptation cost among participants based on cooperative game theory. Within the game theory, the Shapley value is used for cost allocation based on an estimation of adaptation benefits and cost. To demonstrate the framework, a case study was conducted using an underground floodway project in Seoul, South Korea with six participants. The allocated cost decreases for participants who contribute more to saving the construction cost, whereas it increases for those who benefit more from flood damage prevention. In addition, geographic advantages in cooperation among players promote the chances of reducing the construction cost. This study is expected to assist decision makers in developing an agreement for financing an adaptation project through a rational cost allocation process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]