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The use of fossil fuels, which still dominate global primary energy consumption, results not only in emissions of greenhouse gas but also in emissions of pollutants such as SO2, NOx, and PM. Damage caused by air pollution can be expressed in monetary terms in the form of external costs to society. The goal of this paper is to answer the following questions: How much will the energy sector's emissions change as a result of decarbonization? What is the estimated level of external costs related to human health in future energy scenarios? How large are the estimated external costs compared to the planned investments in this sector? The study conducted for the period 2018–2050 used the impact pathway approach and covered the centralized power and heat generation sector in Poland. The reported values of the concentration–response functions that relate human exposure to air pollution with health impact were reviewed. The results show that external costs decrease from an estimated annual level in the range of EUR 782–1911 million in 2018 to EUR 36–876 million in 2050. The cumulative value of avoided external costs between 2018 and 2050 is significantly lower than the planned capital expenditures in the energy sector in Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The e-commerce industry has been developing extremely dynamically for many years. This development was intensified during the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the research conducted by the authors of this paper, in Poland, during the pandemic, the number of delivered parcels increased 20–100%, depending on the courier company. The research of the authors of this article focused on the energy efficiency of the last mile, which is very important for the efficiency of the entire delivery process to customers. As the authors calculated, the last mile can consume over 70% of energy of the whole distribution channel. The article presents the results of research concerning the energy efficiency of deliveries performed by couriers and express companies in Poland. Two models of distribution used Poland have been compared—direct deliveries to final customers, and deliveries to parcel lockers. The research methods are interviews with the managers and couriers, analysis of the literature, and the simulation method. According to the results of the simulations performed by the authors, distribution with the use of parcels lockers can help reduce the consumption of fuel even by 74–87% per parcel or 36% per m3. Apart from this, the authors calculated the impact of scale of operations on the energy efficiency of the transport processes on the last mile, which is an indirect effect of the growth of the e-commerce market, caused by the pandemic. Based on the results of the original research of the authors, it can be assessed that the growth of the number of the delivered parcels during the pandemic resulted in the consumption of fuel per one parcel being reduced in some cases by over 36%. The novelty of the authors' research is that the conducted simulations regarded not only the efficiency of the processes, but also the energy consumption in delivering parcels at the last mile and during the pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy sector is expected to face fundamental challenges in the near future. On the one hand, it is experiencing a rapidly increasing demand for energy. At the same time, it is subject to the pressure of the climate policy due to environmental issues. For the same reason, the energy sector is forced to undertake costly investments to transform production from black to green energy. The issue of financing has become one of the key problems of the energy sector, especially in those countries in which energy production traditionally is based on fossil fuels, i.e., coal. The paper aims to investigate the impact of corporate governance on the capital structure of companies from the energy industry. We use three proxies of corporate governance quality: institutional investors, the board size, and state ownership and investigate their impact on capital structure. Our findings suggest that the latter two negatively impact debt levels. In our model, we control for financial factors and CEO personal characteristics. We use a Polish setting since transformational problems of the energy sector in Poland are especially visible. At the same time, energy companies in Poland are subject to the strict EU climate policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The problem of transport is a special type of mathematical programming designed to search for the optimal distribution network, taking into account the set of suppliers and the set of recipients. This article proposes an innovative approach to solving the transportation problem and devises source codes in GNU Octave (version 3.4.3) to avoid the necessity of carrying out enormous calculations in traditional methods and to minimize transportation costs, fuel consumption, and CO 2 emission. The paper presents a numerical example of a solution to the transportation problem using: the northwest corner, the least cost in the matrix, the row minimum, and Vogel's Approximation Methods (VAM). The joint use of mathematical programming and optimization was applicable to real conditions. The transport was carried out with medium load trucks. Both suppliers and recipients of materials were located geographically within the territory of the Republic of Poland. The presented model was supported by a numerical example with interpretation and visualization of the obtained results. The implementation of the proposed solution enables the user to develop an optimal transport plan for individually defined criteria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we aim to identify the determinants that profoundly impact renewable energy sources development in Poland. To this end, the authors have conducted qualitative and quantitative analyses of Poland's renewable energy sector. In this paper, we demonstrate an original approach considering the different development levels of the given sector across provinces (voivodeships). It uses panel data from the Local Data Bank of the Statistics Poland on electricity production from renewable energy sources in individual voivodeships in Poland from 2005 through 2019. The study confronts the results of previous studies and sheds light on the situation in Poland—specifically, upon the changes that have happened over the ten years (2010–2019). The qualitative analysis shows a negative correlation between energy consumption and the share of renewable energy sources in total energy production. Evidence shows that favorable changes are underway in the energy production structure: RES share is growing and by degrees satisfying energy demand, and there is growing potential of energy entities in Poland. Furthermore, the analysis shows that R&D and total expenditures on environmental protection and water management investments do not significantly affect the development of RES. A dynamic panel data model has been used to analyze the group and time effects on the dependent variable. The findings confirm the existence of the persistency effect and indicate positive effects of total installed electric capacity (IEC) and household electricity consumption (HEC). Nonhousehold electricity consumption (NHEC) has a negative effect on the endogenous variable, i.e., the renewable energy sources share in the gross final energy consumption (RESS). The research results may be applicable as recommendations for energy efficiency policy development based on renewable energy sources depending on the RES development level in the regions of Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, a growing number of enterprises have taken different steps to reduce the energy consumption and carbon emissions of information and communication technology (ICT) assets. Because of the expansion of digitalization and the need for rapid access to information, enterprises have been compelled to optimize the location and utilization of their ICT hardware. In this context, this paper presents a novel method based on a mixed-integer linear programming approach for optimizing the physical location and task allocation of printing devices in office floor plans considering the power usage of the ICT assets, the costs related to the purchase and service of the individual devices, operating costs, and distance between employees and printing devices. The applicability of the proposed model is illustrated using the case study of a company with 100 functional departments located in several office buildings across Poland. The results reveal that the model guarantees the execution of all printing tasks and satisfies the functionality requirements expressed by the users of the workstations. Moreover, the selection of more energy-efficient printing devices leads to a considerable reduction in electricity consumption, related not only to the direct operation of these devices but also to their modes of operation (work, idle, or sleep). Such results also bring tangible effects in reducing carbon dioxide emissions, which is particularly important for businesses operating in countries where fossil fuels still dominate the energy mix. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various environmental policy instruments supporting the development of renewable energy are used on an increasing scale as part of the policy of mitigating climate change and more. In our paper, we examine the influence of environmental policy stringency on renewable energy production in the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia for the period 1993–2012 after controlling for gross domestic product per capita growth, CO2 emissions per capita and income inequality. We use the Panel Pooled Mean Group Autoregressive Distributive Lag model to analyze the long-run and the short-run relationship between restrictiveness of environmental policy and renewable energy generation. The results reveal that, in the long run, a more stringent environmental policy has a positive impact both on the increase in the absolute volume of renewable energy production, as well as on the replacement of energy from fossil sources. Our main findings indicate that renewable energy production is positively influenced not only by the stringency of instruments aimed directly at the development of this energy sector, but also by the stringency of instruments with other environmental goals and by the overall level of restrictiveness of the environmental policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy education of the younger generation, who are the future decision makers, investors, consumers, scientists, or skilled labor force in new energy technologies, is crucial for the future of Europe and the world. However, beyond the long-term goals of energy education policies, the short-term effects on energy conservation and the promotion of renewable energy sources are equally as important. The main purpose of the paper is to identify and analyze the behavior of students (who study the issues related to energy saving and RES), in terms of energy conservation. The conducted analysis focused on examining and comparing the scope of responses of the surveyed students in individual countries, especially in the Czech Republic, Poland, and Ukraine. The survey was carried out using the computer-assisted web interview (CAWI). Descriptive and graphical methods were used to present the results. Statistical analysis of the collected data included basic measures of descriptive statistics and the chi-square test. The main results of the study are as follows: Almost 60% of the surveyed students follow the principles of energy conservation; however increased educational activities on eco-energy behaviors is recommended. The share of RES in the heating systems of the studied residential buildings is 9%, on average, with the highest percentage of houses in Poland (14%) and the lowest in Ukraine (only 2.6%). When compared with literature reports, the collect data show that educational activities can be as effective as a tool in implementing RES and pro-environmental behaviors as the government's environmental policy and household subsidies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused changes in electricity demand and, consequently, electricity consumption profiles. Given the rapid changes in energy prices, it is significant from the perspective of energy companies, and forecasting consumed energy volume. A necessity for accurate energy volume planning forces the need for analyzing consumers' behaviors during the pandemic, especially under lockdowns, to prepare for the possibility of another pandemic wave. Many business clients analyzed in the paper are economic entities functioning in sectors under restrictions. That is why analyzing the pandemic's impact on the change in energy consumption profiles and volume of these entities is particularly meaningful. The article analyzes the pandemic and restrictions' impact on the total change of energy consumption volume and demand profiles. The analysis was conducted basing on data collected from a Polish energy trading and sales company. It focused on the energy consumption of its corporate clients. Analyzed data included aggregated energy consumption volumes for all company's customers and key groups of economic entities under restrictions. The analysis demonstrates the influence of pandemic restrictions on energy consumption in the group of business clients. Significant differences are observable among various sectors of the economy. The research proves that the largest drops in energy consumption are related to shopping centers and offices. Altogether, the restrictions have caused a 15–23% energy consumption drop during the first lockdown and a maximum 11% during the second against expected values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

(1) Background—The aim of this paper was to indicate whether the taxation of facilities related to renewable or low-emission energy differed significantly from that of facilities generating electricity from coal. (2) Methods—The research was conducted using a descriptive method, and because of the legal nature of the article, a crucial role was played by the dogmatic method. (3) Results—The thesis according to which only the "construction part" is subject to the property tax is the result of many years of disputes between the taxpayers and the tax authorities. In practice, it is difficult to compare the tax burden on assets related to coal and low-emission power generation because of the construction of the tax base in Polish property tax law. Most often, however, the tax burden on assets, which is calculated in the context of the amount of energy produced, tends to favour coal-fired power generation. (4) Conclusion: The property tax regulations in Poland treat the assets used for energy production by all methods identically. In practice, because of the specificity of the tax base, this means a more favourable treatment of facilities associated with coal-fired power generation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A substantial share of the building sector in global energy demand has attracted scholars to focus on the energy efficiency of the building sector. The building's energy consumption has been projected to increase due to mass urbanization, high living comfort standards, and, more importantly, climate change. While climate change has potential impacts on the rate of energy consumption in buildings, several studies have shown that these impacts differ from one region to another. In response, this paper aimed to investigate the impact of climate change on the heating and cooling energy demands of buildings as influential variables in building energy consumption in the city of Poznan, Poland. In this sense, through the statistical downscaling method and considering the most recent Typical Meteorological Year (2004–2018) as the baseline, the future weather data for 2050 and 2080 of the city of Poznan were produced according to the HadCM3 and A2 GHG scenario. These generated files were then used to simulate the energy demands in 16 building prototypes of the ASHRAE 90.1 standard. The results indicate an average increase in cooling load and a decrease in heating load at 135% and 40%, respectively, by 2080. Due to the higher share of heating load, the total thermal load of the buildings decreased within the study period. Therefore, while the total thermal load is currently under the decrease, to avoid its rise in the future, serious measures should be taken to control the increased cooling demand and, consequently, thermal load and GHG emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cities have been struggling for many years with many transport problems, including the impact of carbon monoxide emitted by vehicles on the environment, traffic jams, high energy consumption, numerous accidents or high infrastructure costs. There is also a dynamic growth of vehicles on the roads, which is why an increasing number of cities are introducing intelligent transportation systems (ITS), which is part of the concept of smart cities. This paper proposes a new matrix to assess the effects of the ITS implementation in the context of a concept Smart City, which consists of five criteria: (1) movement speed; (2) safety; (3) environmental; (4) economic; (5) satisfaction and amenities for society/passengers. In this new approach the benchmark values of the indicators assigned to the criteria are involved and, therefore, it is possible to determine the level of effectiveness of the ITS in public transport that uses low-carbon energy. This research used literature studies to establish the criteria of effectiveness of ITS as well as a case study, namely public transport that uses low-carbon energy in a Polish city, which had the largest fleet of electric buses in Poland and implements and uses an ITS. Both, the theoretical and the empirical research results demonstrate the usefulness and potency of the proposed matrix to assess the effects of the ITS implementation in cities in the context of the development of a smart city. In that way, the proposed approach may be a useful tool for measuring the effects of ITS implementation in cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among the many different applications of geothermal energy, its use for agricultural production purposes is noteworthy. The use of geothermal water in greenhouse cultivation is the most modern form of production; it enables the implementation of the production cycle throughout the year while reducing energy costs. In this paper, based on basic heat transfer relations, the heat demand of modern greenhouse constructions was determined. The monthly and year-round heat demand was determined for facilities with diversified heights of the side walls. Depending on the type of unit of greenhouse area analysed (1 ha), the calculated annual heat demand ranged from 11.05 to 12.46 TJ. Based on data on the geothermal energy potential in Poland, investment costs and payback periods were determined for the analysed locations. The locations of the facilities were selected based on traditions of plant cultivation in the greenhouse facilities and the availability of geothermal energy. The analysis showed that, under the adopted conditions, without additional co-financing, and in one of the considered locations, the investment will result in positive financial effects after 15 years. In the case of co-financing, at the level of currently existing values, all locations—irrespective of the assumed period of exploitation—showed satisfactory financial effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thermal refurbishment of buildings results in certain energy, financial, and environmental effects. Such investments are financially supported in Poland after meeting the legally defined conditions of thermal protection and energy consumption. This paper presents a complex thermal modernization of a school building, performed by following Polish regulations. A detailed description of the studied object was given, and the calculation procedure was described. Then an optimal variant of an investment and an ex-post analysis were described. Simple payback time (SPBT) of modernization measures was from 15.8 years (insulation of the ceiling under the unheated attic) to 87 years for insulation of the wooden external wall, with 35.6 years for the whole project, which is shorter than the predicted lifespan of the whole building (50–70 years). Annual calculated heating demand decreased from 464.78 to 168.73 GJ, resulting in the primary energy consumption indicator (EP) of 484.44 and 129.46 kWh/m2, respectively. Thermal refurbishment with the replacement of an old boiler into a new wood-pellet one resulted in a significant reduction of SO2 and dust emissions from 451 to 27.5 kg and from 399 to 13 kg, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electrification of powertrain systems offers numerous advantages in the global trend in vehicular applications. A wide range of energy sources and zero-emission propulsion in the tank to wheel significantly add to electric vehicles' (EV) attractiveness. This paper presents analyses of the energy balance between micro-photovoltaic (PV) installation and small electric vehicle in real conditions. It is based on monitoring PV panel's energy production and car electricity consumption. The methodology included energy data from real household PV installation (the most common renewable energy source in Poland), electric vehicle energy consumption during real driving conditions, and drivetrain operating parameters, all collected over a period of one year by indirect measuring. A correlation between energy produced by the micro-PV installation and small electric car energy consumption was described. In the Winter, small electric car energy consumption amounted to 14.9 kWh per 100 km and was 14% greater than summer, based on test requirements of real driving conditions. The 4.48 kW PV installation located in Poznań produced 4101 kWh energy in 258 days. The calculation indicated 1406 kWh energy was available for EV charging after household electricity consumption subtraction. The zero-emission daily distance analysis was done by the simplified method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An increase in energy demand that is caused by fast economic development, a limited and constantly decreasing supply of traditional energy sources, as well as excessive environmental pollution that is caused by an increasing concentration of dust and gases in the atmosphere constitute the main factors that contribute to the ever-increasing interest in renewable sources of energy. The most important and promising renewable source of energy is thought to be solar energy. The aim of the paper is to assess the macroeconomic investment efficiency of photovoltaic installations in order to meet the demand for electric energy in single-family homes in Polish conditions. The conducted analysis comprises market characteristics and legal regulations concerning the sale of electric energy in Poland. Calculations were made for 320 variants that differed with regard to investment location, building orientation, and roof inclination. The results indicate that the most beneficial region for photovoltaic micro-installations, from a social perspective, is the south-east of and central Poland. The highest values of economic efficiency were achieved in the case of a southern roof inclination as well as a south-eastern and south-western building orientation. No big differences were observed in the economic investment efficiency for the panel inclinations. The calculated Discounted Payback Period, depending on the calculation method, equals 5.4 to 10 years. The results of the study confirm that the implemented support instruments for investments in photovoltaic installations producing energy for single-family house demand is economically viable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The diversification of energy sources in buildings and the interdependence as well as communication between HVAC installations in the building have resulted in the growing interest in energy load prediction systems that enable proper management of energy resources. In addition, energy storage and the creation of energy buffers are also important in terms of proper resource management, for which it is necessary to correctly determine energy consumption over time. It is obvious that the consumption of cooling energy depends on meteorological conditions. Knowing the parameters of the outside air and the number of users, it is, therefore, possible to determine the hourly energy consumption of a cooling system in a building with some accuracy. The article presents models of cooling energy prediction in summer for a hotel building in southern Poland. The paper presents two methods that are often used for energy prediction: neural networks and support vector machines. Meteorological data, time data, and occupancy level were used as input parameters. Based on the collected input and output data, various configurations were tested to identify the model with the best accuracy. As the analysis showed, higher prediction accuracy was obtained thanks to the use of neural networks. The best of the proposed models was characterized by the WAPE and CV coefficients of 19.93% and 27.03%, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers and practitioners argue that in the global context of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, also labelled Industry 4.0, the regional dimension of industrial development remains equally essential. A region that effectively implements the concept of Industry 4.0 can accelerate by enhancing the manufacturing energy efficiency, thus contributing to the goals of the "Green Deal" policy. Therefore, to support the policy-making process, it is necessary to develop analytical tools exploring the determinants of the Industry 4.0 development. This paper presents a methodology of strategic analysis of a region in terms of the Industry 4.0 development potential. The core of the methodology is an extended Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis. The study identifies regional strengths and weaknesses, external incentives and disincentives, internal opportunities and threats, and external opportunities and threats with regard to the development of Industry 4.0, related technologies and the potential of increasing manufacturing energy efficiency. The research procedure is exemplified by the case of Podlaskie Voivodeship in Poland. The results of this study demonstrate the robustness of the proposed approach. The elaborated methodology can be used by decision-makers in designing strategies for the development of fourth-generation industry at a regional level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers and practitioners argue that in the global context of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, also labelled Industry 4.0, the regional dimension of industrial development remains equally essential. A region that effectively implements the concept of Industry 4.0 can accelerate by enhancing the manufacturing energy efficiency, thus contributing to the goals of the "Green Deal" policy. Therefore, to support the policy-making process, it is necessary to develop analytical tools exploring the determinants of the Industry 4.0 development. This paper presents a methodology of strategic analysis of a region in terms of the Industry 4.0 development potential. The core of the methodology is an extended Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis. The study identifies regional strengths and weaknesses, external incentives and disincentives, internal opportunities and threats, and external opportunities and threats with regard to the development of Industry 4.0, related technologies and the potential of increasing manufacturing energy efficiency. The research procedure is exemplified by the case of Podlaskie Voivodeship in Poland. The results of this study demonstrate the robustness of the proposed approach. The elaborated methodology can be used by decision-makers in designing strategies for the development of fourth-generation industry at a regional level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many regions in Poland face the problem of air pollution. These regions include, though are not exclusive, to health resorts, an important element of the healthcare industry. Poor air quality is mainly associated with the domestic sector, which is dominated by individual solid fuel and coal boilers. One option for reducing emissions is to use alternative energy sources for heating purposes. Therefore, the paper presents an analysis into the possibility of using low enthalpy (low temperature) geothermal energy in health resort areas. The main purpose of the article is to estimate the potential of soil and water as the lower source for a heat pump. The article presents analyses of geological and hydrogeological conditions based on which the thermal parameters of the rock mass were determined, which were thermal conductivity and unit heat output for 1800 operating hours per year. The calculated values were used to perform a spatial analysis of the data and create maps of the average thermal conductivity for horizontal ground heat exchangers (HGHE) to a depth of 2 and 10 m and vertical ground heat exchangers (VGHE) in depth ranges up to 30, 60, and 90 m. The heating power of the intakes, located in the research area, were estimated using empirical formulas. In addition, a detailed analysis of the physicochemical parameters of groundwater in terms of the requirements indicated by four heat pump manufacturers is presented. The results of the presented research makes it possible to assess the potential of low-temperature geothermal energy and to characterize the suitability of the selected location for the use of HGHE, VGHE, and wells. As a result, the discussed area was found to have a high potential for the use of ground source heat pumps and a moderate potential for the use of low-temperature systems based on groundwater. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The estimation of energy consumption is an important prerequisite for planning the required infrastructure for charging and optimising the schedules of battery electric buses used in public urban transport. This paper proposes a model using a reduced number of readily acquired bus trip parameters: arrival times at the bus stops, map positions of the bus stops and a parameter indicating the trip conditions. A deep learning network is developed for deriving the estimates of energy consumption stop by stop of bus lines. Deep learning networks belong to the important group of methods capable of the analysis of large datasets—"big data". This property allows for the scaling of the method and application to different sized transport networks. Validation of the network is done using real-world data provided by bus authorities of the town of Jaworzno in Poland. The estimates of energy consumption are compared with the results obtained using a regression model that is based on the collected data. Estimation errors do not exceed 7.1% for the set of several thousand bus trips. The study results indicate spots in the public transport network of potential power deficiency which can be alleviated by introducing a charging station or correcting the bus trip schedules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Innovations in technical, financial, and social areas are crucial prerequisites for an effective and sustainable energy transition. In this context, the construction of a new energy structure and the motivation of the consumer towards a change in their consumption behaviours to balance demand with a volatile energy supply are important issues. At the same time, Consumer Stock Ownership Plans (CSOPs) in renewable energies sources (RESs) have proven to be an essential cornerstone in the overall success of energy transition. Indeed, when consumers acquire ownership in RES, they become prosumers, participating in the phase of production and distribution of energy. Prosumers provide benefits by (1) generating a part of the energy they consume, (2) reducing their overall expenditure for energy, and (3) receiving a second source of income from the sale of excess production. Supporting Consumer Co-Ownership in Renewable Energies (SCORE) is an ongoing Horizon 2020 project with the aim of overcoming the usage of energy from fossil sources in favour of RES, promoting the creation of energy communities (EC) and facilitating co-ownership of renewable energies (RE) for consumers. SCORE hereby particularly emphasises the inclusion of women, low-income households, and vulnerable groups affected by fuel poverty that are as a rule excluded from RE investments. In this framework, the main goal of the present study is to illustrate the general procedure and process of EC creation. In particular, this paper focuses on the description of the methodological approach in implementing the CSOP model which consists of three main phases: the identification and description of selected buildings (preparation phase), the preliminary and feasibility analysis phase, and finally the phase of target group involvement. SCORE first started in three pilot regions in Italy, Czech Republic, and Poland, and later, with the aim of extending the methodology, in various other cities across Europe. In this study, Italian pilot study sites were chosen as a case study to develop and test the methodology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Works of art are sensitive to environmental factors—mainly temperature and relative humidity—which, when stable, are generally recommended as ideal protection conditions, but in historical museum buildings, the required conditions are difficult to maintain, due to a lack of adequate heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems. The paper presents the analysis of one-year measurements of temperature and relative humidity in three different museums in Poland. The aim of the research was to identify the risk to museum collections, due to unbalanced moisture loads and unstable indoor air temperatures, as well as to identify possible causes of fluctuations in these parameters. This article focuses on assessing the impact of variable external and internal loads on the hygrothermal parameters of indoor air. The profile of internal hygrothermal loads in exhibition halls varied over time, which resulted in a temporary variation of the indoor environmental parameters. The lack of appropriate systems, shaping the microclimate in the analyzed museums, and the lack of automatic control in existing devices did not allow to maintain the temperature and relative humidity within appropriate limits. In the museums, the maximum indoor temperature values were higher than those recommended in the requirements. Relative humidity values in all museums exceeded the recommended range both above and below. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The housing sector, especially with respect to energy generation to provide heating and domestic hot water, has been identified, after transport, as contributing the most to air pollution and the occurrence of low emissions in Poland. In particular, this applies to areas where there is a lack of heating and gas networks. This paper presents the results of calculations relating to the emission of atmospheric pollutants (TSP—total suspended particles as particulate matter PM10 and PM2.5, SOx—sulphur dioxide, NOx—nitrogen dioxide, CO—carbon monoxide) from individual sources of heat. The fact that a commune that does not have the network infrastructure, noted above, was taken into consideration, and the structure of heat generation was estimated on the basis of coal, fuel oil and biomass. The analysis was carried out taking into account the variable heat generation structure in households depending on the fuels used, including the heating values of fuels and the efficiency of heating devices. Based on the calculations carried out, an ecological effect was obtained by assuming the replacement of heat sources by devices with higher efficiency and also by considering the possibility of using heat pumps as a zero-emission solution in the households. This article attempts to answer the question posed by municipal authorities on how to limit the negative impact on the environment of individual heating devices in order to achieve sustainable development, including the specific conditions resulting from limited infrastructural opportunities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diagnostics of natural ventilation in buildings is problematic, as the airflow rate changes considerably over time. One constant average airflow is usually assumed when calculating energy demand for a building, however, such a simplification could be fraught with considerable error. The paper describes a comprehensive methodology for the diagnostics of a natural ventilation system in a building and its practical application. Based on in situ measurements and simulations in two existing buildings (dwelling house and school) in Poland, the real values of the ventilating airflows were analyzed and resulting heat demand was compared with the design values. The pros and cons of various methods for evaluation of natural ventilation are discussed. The real airflow was determined by measurements in a ventilation grille or by a tracer gas concentration decay method. The airtightness of the buildings' envelope was evaluated based on the fan pressurization test. The last stage entailed computer simulations of air exchange in buildings using CONTAM software. The multizone models of the buildings were calibrated and verified with existing measured data. Measured airflow in a multifamily house was small and substantially deviated from the Polish standard. In case of a school, the air flow rate amounted to an average of 10% of the required value. Calculation of the heat demand for ventilation based on the standard value of the airflow led to a considerable overestimation of this value in relation to the real consumption. In the analyzed cases, the difference was 40% for the school and 30% for the residential building. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Polish as well as the global energy economy, including in particular heat generation, is to a great extent based on facilities for the combustion of liquid and gaseous fuels. Globally, a considerable part, and in Poland a vast majority of these facilities are much worn out, and, consequently, they work with low efficiency producing considerable amounts of pollutants, which have a very negative impact on the environment. Therefore, it is of crucial importance to develop innovative solutions that enhance the efficiency of fuel combustion and at the same time reduce emission of pollutants. The paper presents a solution which renders it possible to increase the efficiency of fuel conversion by heating up substrates of combustion processes, heat recovery from combustion gases as a result of their cooling and water vapor condensation and which contributes to a reduction of pollution. The solution brings about significant fuel consumption savings and thus a considerable enhancement of economic and ecological efficiency of heat sources is achieved. The solution is specially dedicated to heat sources of low and medium power. The technology developed and described herein will also allow an elimination of environmental burdens caused by inefficient heat sources already in operation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The projected increase in the availability of gaseous fuels by growing popularity of household natural gas (NG) filling stations and the increase in the production of gaseous biogas-derived fuels is conducive to an increase in the use of NG fuel. Currently, natural gas in various forms (compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied natural gas (LNG)) is popular in maritime, rail and road transport. A new direction of natural gas application may be non-road mobile machines powered by a small spark-ignition engine (SI). The use of these engines in the wood chippers can cause the reduction of machine costs and emissions of harmful exhaust gases. In addition, plant material chippers intended for composting in bio-gas plants can be driven by the gas they are used to produce. The biogas can be purified to bio-methane to meet natural gas quality standards. The article presents the design of the natural gas supply system, which is an upgrade of the Lifan GX 390 combustion engine spark ignition engine (Four-stroke, OHV (over head valve) with a maximum power of 9.56 kW), which is a common representative of small gasoline engines. The engine is mounted in a cylindrical chipper designed for shredding branches with a maximum diameter of up to 100 mm, which is a typical machine used for cleaning work in urban areas. The engine powered by CNG and traditionally gasoline has been tested in real working conditions, when shredding cherry plum (Prunus cerasifera Ehrh. Beitr. Naturk. 4:17. 1789 (Gartenkalender4:189–204. 1784)). Their diameter was ca. 80 mm, 3-metere-long, and humidity content ca. 25%. The systems were tested under the same actual operating conditions, the average power generated by the drives during shredding is about 0.69 kW. Based on the recorded results, it was found that the CNG-fuelled engine was characterized by nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions higher by 45%. The other effects of CNG were a reduction in carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions of about 81%, 26% and 57%, respectively. Additionally, the use of CNG reduced fuel consumption by 31% and hourly estimated machine operating costs resulting from fuel costs by 53% (for average fuel price in Poland: gasoline: 0.99 EUR/L and CNG: 0.71 EUR/m3 on 08 November 2020). The modernization performed by the authors ensured the work of the drive unit during shredding, closer to the value of stoichiometric mixtures. The average (AVG) value of the air fuel ratio (AFR) for CNG was enriched by 1.2% (AVG AFR was 17), while for the gasoline engine the mixture was more enriched by 4.8% (AVG AFR was 14). The operation of spark-ignition (SI) combustion engines is most advantageous when burning stoichiometric mixtures due to the cooperation with exhaust aftertreatment systems (e.g., three-function catalytic converter). A system powered by CNG may be beneficial in systems adapting to operating conditions, used in low-power shredding machines, whose problem is increased HC emissions, and CNG combustion may reduce them. The developed system does not exceed the emission standards applicable in the European Union. For CO emissions expressed in g/kWh, it was about 95% lower than the permissible value, and HC + NOx emissions were 85% lower. This suggests that the use of the fuel in question may contribute to tightening up the permissible emission regulations for non-road machinery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]