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The flexural performance of a glulam wood/PVC composite (GWPVC) hollow member, which was assembled from four elements with WPVC composite hollow sections to create a double I-section, was studied using two methods: the analytical method with iteration technique (AMIT) and the finite element method (FEM). Experiments verified the predictions from AMIT and simulations from FEM to determine the most suitable method for the parametric studies. This investigation explored the variations in slenderness ratio and the flange and web thickness to enhance and study their impact on flexural performance. In parametric studies, equal crosssectional areas were used to facilitate comparisons and maintain production costs. The importance of bond strength at the contact surfaces in assembling a GWPVC hollow member led to bonding tests and confirmed sufficient strength at contact surfaces. In four-point bending tests, the GWPVC hollow member exhibited a brittle mode with flexural tensile failure without delamination. The initial MOE, MOR, and maximum deflection values were 5,140 MPa, 29.8 MPa, and 47.8 mm, respectively. The parametric study employs AMIT to investigate flexural performance and reveals that varying the slenderness ratio affected the initial stiffness, maximum deflection, and ultimate load. Flexural performance can be improved by making minor adjustments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the only renewable building material, wood has a strong carbon sequestration effect. Thus, timber structures have the natural advantages of saving energy and reducing emissions. Currently, the research objects of building energy consumption are rarely timber structures. To further control the operational energy consumption of timber structures, this paper takes six-story glued laminated timber beam-column frame and light woodframe shear wall structures as the research objects. Building energy consumption research is conducted through testing the heat transfer coefficient of the envelope structure, air circulation ratio, and Building Information Modeling (BIM) technology on-site. The results show that the energy consumption of the building is consistent with the current energy consumption of small- and medium-sized office buildings, and the heat gain and loss of the building are mainly due to solar radiation and heat conduction of the envelope, respectively. The airtightness of the building has the greatest influence on the energy consumption of the building, and the type of building structure and window-to-wall ratio have little influence on the energy consumption of the building. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shear connectors ensure effective interaction between wood beams and concrete slabs of composite beams, and their properties noticeably affect the fire resistance of timber-concrete composite beams. To investigate the shear stiffness of notched connectors in glued laminated timber (GLT)- concrete composite beams under fire conditions, 16 shear tests were conducted. The effects of fire duration and notch length on shear properties of the connectors for a given spacing were studied. The fire tests indicated that the reduction of the notch length from 200 mm to 150 mm remarkably affected the failure mode of the shear specimens, changing from compression failure of notched wood to shear failure of notched concrete. The increase in fire duration reduced effective width of the notched wood, negatively affected the shear stiffness and shear capacity of the connectors, and the shear stiffness decreased more rapidly. The notch length did not have a substantial effect on the shear stiffness of connectors. Based on the experimental results, an analytical model to estimate the shear stiffness of notched connectors in GLT-concrete beam under fire conditions was established. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted to propose an accurate measurement method of charred thickness in structural glued laminated timber (glulam) exposed to standardized fire temperature conditions for evaluation of the fire resistance of Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi) structural glulam. The compressive strength of the test piece collected from the structural glulam exposed to the standardized fire temperature for two hours was analyzed. The results showed that there was residual strength of 14% in the boundary area between sound and charred part. Therefore, the thickness of charred part should be calculated as approximately 4.5 mm less than what is measured visually. The cell wall thickness between sound-, boundary-, and charred-part exposed to high temperature was observed under a microscope. Higher temperature resulted in a thinner tracheid cell wall, and the radial tissue was broken down. The transformation of the boundary part of these microstructures progressed gradually until full carbonization of wood occurred. Based on compressive strength tests and microscopic observation in the boundary part of specimens exposed to high temperature, the current visual assessment of charred thickness measurement is safe in terms of structural aspect but not efficient in terms of wood utilization point of view due to exception of load carrying area of the member. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Different types of wood can be used for making cross-laminated timber (CLT), which is useful as a structural material. Therefore, to assess the viability of mixed cross-laminated timbers prepared with different adhesives, their compressive strength performances were evaluated. Laminae of Japanese larch, red pine, and yellow poplar were used to manufacture eight types of mixed CLTs, which were then tested in a universal testing machine for obtaining the compressive strength. The results were then compared to those obtained from the finite element (FEM) simulation of the CLTs at proportional limit load. The compressive strength of CLTs consisting of Japanese larch laminae, with a high modulus of elasticity, tended to increase. Mixed CLT with polyurethane adhesives showed an average compressive strength that was 14% lower than that of larch CLT, while mixed CLT consisting of red pine and yellow poplar showed an average compressive strength that was 18% lower than that of the larch CLT. The CLT prepared with phenol-resorcinolformaldehyde adhesive yielded the highest compressive strength among the three adhesives. The FEM-predicted strengths were found to be close to the actual values in all specimens. The obtained results will be useful for selecting material and adhesive for future endeavors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The successful manufacturing of glulam from several important Australian commercial timbers is quite challenging due to difficulties in gluing. Improvements in adhesive bond performance of spotted gum, Darwin stringybark, and southern pine timber have been achieved using alternative pre-gluing surface machining methods, e.g., face milling and sanding-post planing, when compared to conventional planing methods. In order to improve the understanding of the effects that different surface machining methods have on adhesive bond performance, this study used micro X-ray computed tomography and microscopy to assess key adhesive bond criteria. There was a considerable loss in the amount of adhesive after the wet and dry test cycles for all species. There was also an extremely high frequency of voids in the glue lines for all species, which would negatively impact bond strength and durability. Face mill prepared timber boards resulted in thicker glue lines and greater resistance to adhesion loss, compared to boards prepared via planing. For the two hardwood species, face milling also resulted in greater adhesive penetration; however, for southern pine, there were no significant differences in adhesive penetration between the three surface machining treatments. Adhesive penetration was much deeper in southern pine compared to spotted gum and Darwin stringybark. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bamboo-like glulam beams with hollow section units and intermittent internal reinforcement pieces were produced with small-diameter larchwood pieces and one-component polyurethane. To better understand the design reliability, the failure mode, ultimate bearing capacity, and application potential were evaluated. Three types of beams (solid glulam, hollow glulam, and bamboo-like rectangular glulam beams) were compared and analyzed in this work. Stiffener pieces glued inside the bamboo-like beam were found to increase the bearing capacity and improve the failure mode relative to the hollow glulam beam. Comparison of the hollow section with a similar outside diameter showed that the ultimate bearing capacity increased by approximately 12.3% when the spacing between the stiffeners was 270 mm, and the ultimate bearing capacity increased by approximately 18.0% when the spacing between the stiffeners was 135 mm. Compared with the solid timber beams, wood consumption was reduced by 26.4% and 25.7% for the hollow and bamboo-like glulam beams, respectively. Also, a parameter analysis of the reasonable spacing and thickness of the stiffener was proposed by the finite element method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hexagonal glue-laminated timber with large cross-sections, made from small diameter logs, was studied. Effects of relative humidity variations on the moisture-induced stresses were investigated to evaluate how the prediction model compared to a real outcome. The test samples were exposed to an environment with relative humidity variations from 80% to 30%. The moisture content inside the samples was measured via X-ray computed tomography scanning. A moisture transport and a hygromechanical finite element simulation model was used for the prediction of moisture content and resulting stress distribution. The results from both the test and simulation showed that the moisture content in the edge angles of the samples dropped rapidly due to a large moisture diffusion rate. The moisture gradient was generated via a different moisture transfer rate at the inner and external parts of the samples. The maximum stress perpendicular to the grain in the simulation was 8 MPa and was located at the surface near the corners. This stress peak caused cracking according to the model, which was also seen in the test samples. The results for the measured moisture content agreed with the simulated results and this indicated that the moisture transfer model was adequate for simulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, the bending properties of glulam made from fast-growing poplar barely meet the requirements for application. In this study, the bending properties of glulam made from preservative alkaline copper quaternary (ACQ)-treated and phenol-formaldehyde resin reinforced poplar in different laminate configurations were full-scale tested via a four-point bending method. Theoretical models including stiffness model and rigidity model under different loading modes were founded based on the mechanical analysis of composite materials to predict the Young's modulus of bending and bending strength. The Young's modulus and bending strength of modified fast-growing poplar glulam was greatly enhanced compared with untreated ones, which can meet the standard requirements for symmetrical mixed-grade composition glulam grade E85-F255. The Young's modulus was predicted with the rigidity model with high accuracy. The relative error was below 12%. The modified stiffness model with correction factors for normal stress and interlayer tension shearing stress can also accurately predict the failure mode and bending strength. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A timber-concrete composite structure (TCC) is economically and environmentally friendly. One of the key design points of this kind of structure is to ensure the reliability of the shear connectors. The objective of this paper is to study the mechanical property of stud-groove-type connectors and to provide shear capacity equations for stud-groove connectors in timber-concrete composite structures. Based on the Johansen Yield Theory (European Yield Model), some mechanical models and capacity equations for stud-groove-type connectors in timber-concrete structures were studied. Push-out specimens with different parameters (stud diameter, stud length, groove width, and groove depth) were tested to obtain the shear capacity and slip modulus. The experimental strengths were used to validate equations given in the paper. The shear capacity and slip modulus of stud-groove-type connectors was in direct proportion to the diameter of studs and the dimension of the groove. Comparison between the theoretical and the experimental shear strength results showed reasonable agreement. The highlight of this study on shear capacity equations could significantly reduce the push-out tests before investigating the other properties of TCC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The bamboo industry plays a significant strategic role in the world's economy. Laminated bamboo, with increasing yearly yields, is the intermediate material for bamboo products such as furniture, floor board, and container floor. The trilaminar straight joint glued-laminated bamboo production line is the leading enterprise in Fujian Province, and it was used to conduct a load analysis of the data collected from a year's production, based on the life cycle assessment system. The results show that the processing of glued-laminated bamboo contributes notably to the acidification potential, eutrophication potential, global warming potential, and photochemical ozone creation potential, whereas resource depletion and ozone depletion are affected by the urea-formaldehyde resin adhesive, among which the urea contributes the most. As for processing, carbonization, desiccation, and thermo-compression, these have the greatest impacts on the environmental load, with a total contribution rate of greater than 67%, as the main source for the power depletion is from the processing of fossil fuel. In addition, the oxynitride, phosphide, sulfide, aromatic hydrocarbon, etc., that are discharged from the reaction intensify the eutrophication potential, the photochemical ozone creation potential, and the acidification potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the optimization of computer numerical control (CNC) machining parameters were conducted using the Taguchi design method on the surface quality of massive wooden edge glued panels (EGP) made of European larch (Larix decidua Mill). Three machining parameters and their effects on surface roughness were evaluated. These parameters included tool clearance strategy, spindle speed, and feed rate. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to identify the significant factors affecting the surface roughness (Ra and Rz). Optimum machining parameter combinations were acquired by conducting an analysis of the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio. Optimal cutting performance for the Ra and Rz was obtained for the cutter at a tool clearance strategy of an offset 16000 rpm spindle speed and 1000 mm/min feed rate. The surface roughness, both the Ra and Rz, increased with increasing feed rate. Optimal cutting performance for Ra and Rz was obtained for a tool clearance strategy of an offset 16000 rpm spindle speed, and 1000 mm/min feed rate cutting settings. Based on the confirmation tests, Ra decreased 2.2 times and Rz 1.8 times compared to the starting cutting parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modified starch was prepared in this work by acid-thinning and oxidizing corn starch with ammonium persulfate. Also, starch-based aqueous polymer isocyanate (API) wood adhesive was prepared. The effect of the added amount of modified starch, styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), polymeric diphenylmethane diisocyanate (P-MDI), and the mass concentration of polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) on the bonding strength of starch-based API adhesives were determined by orthogonal testing. The starch-based API adhesive performance was found to be the best when the addition of modified starch (mass concentration 35%) was 45 g, the amount of SBR was 3%, the PVOH mass concentration was 10%, and the amount of P-MDI was 18%. The compression shearing of glulam produced by starch-based API adhesive reached bonding performance indicators of I type adhesive. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to analyze the changes in micro-morphology of the starch surface during each stage. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) was used to study the changes in absorption peaks and functional groups from starch to starch-based API adhesives. The results showed that during starchbased API adhesive synthesis, corn starch surface was differently changed and it gradually reacted with other materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Manufacturing glued laminated timber (glulam) can help overcome the limited availability of large-sized timber, and the use of bio-adhesives may resolve environmental problems associated with synthetic adhesives containing high formaldehyde contents. Tannin adhesive is a bio-adhesive that can be used as alternative glue in the manufacture of glulam. The purpose of this study was to determine the physical and mechanical properties of glulam made with mahogany (Swietenia sp.) tannin adhesive and wood from three fast-growing species, namely pine (Pinus merkusii), jabon (Anthocephalus cadamba), and sengon (Falcataria moluccana). Glulam (3 cm ? 6 cm ? 120 cm in thickness, width, and length, respectively) was manufactured with three layers of lamina. The physical and mechanical properties of the glulams were tested based on relevant standards. The results showed that pine glulam fulfilled the standard for the modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity, while sengon glulam met the standard for shear strength. In the delamination test, sengon glulam was resistant to immersion in cold water and hot water. All glulams had low formaldehyde emission levels and therefore fulfilled the standard requirements. The results showed that the tannin adhesive from mahogany bark was equal in quality to methylene diphenyl di-isocyanate for glulam manufacturing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]