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Thousands of clinical trials are conducted globally each year. Yet, little is known about their environmental impact. This paper presents the results of a high-level literature review of the carbon footprint of clinical trials. Five papers were identified and their contents summarised qualitatively. All papers were authored by UK researchers. Carbon footprint metrics from 14 trials were presented in carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e). Emissions were broken down by three broadly defined clinical trial activities: operations, travel, and supplies. Recommen - dations for carbon reduction are discussed. The review showed a dearth of publications on greenhouse gas emissions generated by clinical trials. More work in this area is needed to achieve sustainable, low carbon clinical research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper's objective is to investigate the validity of the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis utilizing three unique approaches in this era of accelerating climate change and economic volatility. The first step is to introduce and employ a new cointegration test which allows smooth and sharp structural changes through a dummy variable and a Fourier function. Using a time-varying causality approach, the second stage is to assess the EKC hypothesis's validity for each year of a given period, as opposed to the entire period. The third stage is to conduct time-varying analyses not only of the effect of Gross Domestic Product or aggregate income on environmental degradation but also of the effects of the four major economic units' incomes, namely those of the government, non-financial corporations, households, and the rest of the world. This research derives three conclusions using the United Kingdom as a case study from 1830 to 2016. The impacts of aggregate income and the incomes of the three economic units on carbon emissions are consistent with the EKC hypothesis. Second, each of these effects occurs at different times. Thirdly, the EKC hypothesis regarding the association between the nation's trade income and carbon emissions cannot be validated. To provide policymakers with a dynamic, unit-specific, and effective strategy for mitigating environmental degradation, the paper proposes testing the EKC hypothesis for each year over a specific time period, as well as for the effects of both aggregate income and the disaggregate income of four major economic units., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This study reports the first recorded CO2 flux measurements of a drained and intensively cultivated lowland peatland in the East Anglian Fens (UK) using the eddy covariance technique. Measurements were made over a complete lettuce crop rotation and a subsequent fallow period. Maximum average daytime CO2 uptake and nocturnal loss rates were -10.39 and 7.63 µmolCO2 m-2 s-1, respectively. Daily CO2 budgets ranged from a net loss of 4.7 to a small net uptake of -1.23 gCO2-Cm-2d-1. Total vertical land/atmosphere CO2 losses were estimated at 227.11±46.5 gCO2-Cm-2 for a 120 day measurement period. Losses over a sixty day interval between field preparation and disking of the field at the end of the crop cycle were 74.22±18.8 gCO2-Cm-2. The site lost 152.89±30.6 gCO2-Cm-2d-1 during a sixty day fallow period. Net ecosystem production was estimated at 117.72±18.8 gCO2-Cm-2 during the crop cycle and 270.61±46.49 gCO2-Cm-2 for the entire measurement period when harvested crop exports were accounted for. These results represent the first micrometeorological measurements obtained over degraded lowland peatland in Britain, and illustrate the scale of CO2 losses associated with agricultural production on temperate organic soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to contribute to the growing body of research literature on assessing environmental efficiency by introducing a new key performance indicator (KPIs) in more complete and dependable aspects of ecological footprint indices. For this purpose, the DEA model considering three inputs (energy consumption, labor force, and capital stock), one desirable output (GDP), and different undesirable outputs (CO 2 emissions, ecological footprint indicators) are applied to 27 OECD countries from 2000 to 2017. According to the results, Norway, Luxemburg, and United Kingdom are the most environmentally efficient countries in terms of environmental efficiency and ecological footprint efficiency. On the other hand, the lowest environmental and ecological footprint efficiencies were in countries like Lithuania, Slovak, Czech, Estonia, and the USA. In addition, these nations fare poorly regarding their carbon footprint and farmland efficiency. In further detail, Lithuania, South Korea, Portugal, and Spain have a critical status in fishing ground efficiency, while the forest area efficiency is very acute in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Czech., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

This paper analysed operational CO2 emissions from electricity grid interaction in photovoltaic prosumer dwellings in South Wales, UK. Operational CO2 emissions were quantified in four prosumer dwellings aiming to analyse (1) the differences in the result when time-varying data and static emission factors are used, and (2) the association of load-matching indicators to the results. Electricity balance data were obtained through monitoring (April 2020 to March 2021), and three sources for the grid's CO2 intensity were considered: (1) UK nationwide average time-varying values (UK), (2) South Wales (SW) average time-varying values and (3) the UK Government's official CO2 emissions factor (EF) for the study period. UK and SW grid CO2 intensity were obtained as dynamic data flows in a 30 min resolution, whereas EF was a year constant. Gross CO2 emissions calculated using SW data reached the highest emissions results: between 67.5% and 69.3% higher than the results obtained using the UK time-varying data, and between 41.1% and 45.1% higher than using the EF. The differences between the obtained yearly net emissions using dynamic data and the EF in each studied dwelling ranged between 6.2% and 294%. Results also show that the definition of geographic boundaries for location-based approach calculations can significantly affect the obtained emissions values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the economic growth and energy consumption patterns, most countries are striving to solve the problems of CO 2  emissions reduction to achieve sustainable development. This paper employs an improved DEA model to measure energy and environmental efficiency for some selected countries in central and western Europe. In addition, the DEA window evaluation technique is applied to measure cross-sectional efficiency using two inputs (energy consumption, labor force), a desirable output (gross domestic product), and an undesirable output (CO 2 emission) for the period from 2010 to 2014. The study finds that the UK ranks the highest position in term of energy and environmental efficiency. This shows that the UK has more effective policies regarding energy efficiency, consumption, production, import and energy intensity measures for sustainable economic growth as well as environmental protection. Ireland is the second-best country after the United Kingdom. The efficiency scores of the two countries are 0.99 and 0.89 respectively. On the empirical outcomes, this study suggests effective reforms in energy sector for countries with less energy efficiency that are still facing the problem of environmental degradation., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This paper contributes to the growing literature regarding the role of Information and Communication Technologies as well as Innovation on driving the level of carbon dioxide emissions and economic growth in context of the 21st conference of the Parties to the Climate convention (COP21). Drawing the data from 13 selected G-20 countries (including Argentina, Canada, China, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Republic of Korea, Russian Federation, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States) during the period of 15 years, our study achieves significant results. First, only five factors impede the carbon emissions namely energy price, foreign direct investment, technology, spending on innovation and trade openness while the remainder of determinants contribute to contamination of environment, including financial development. Second, when it comes to economic growth, information and communication technological and financial development are positive driving factors. Our results do reject the absence of Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) from our sample. Finally, our study empirically suggests that the work of controlling consumption of oil and environmentally friendly process including manufacture-trading in these economies will limit the amount of pollution., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

We investigate the use of atmospheric oxygen (O 2) and carbon dioxide (CO 2) measurements for the estimation of the fossil fuel component of atmospheric CO 2 in the UK. Atmospheric potential oxygen (APO) – a tracer that combines O 2 and CO 2 , minimizing the influence of terrestrial biosphere fluxes – is simulated at three sites in the UK, two of which make APO measurements. We present a set of model experiments that estimate the sensitivity of APO simulations to key inputs: fluxes from the ocean, fossil fuel flux magnitude and distribution, the APO baseline, and the exchange ratio of O 2 to CO 2 fluxes from fossil fuel combustion and the terrestrial biosphere. To estimate the influence of uncertainties in ocean fluxes, we compare three ocean O 2 flux estimates from the NEMO–ERSEM, the ECCO–Darwin ocean model, and the Jena CarboScope (JC) APO inversion. The sensitivity of APO to fossil fuel emission magnitudes and to terrestrial biosphere and fossil fuel exchange ratios is investigated through Monte Carlo sampling within literature uncertainty ranges and by comparing different inventory estimates. We focus our model–data analysis on the year 2015 as ocean fluxes are not available for later years. As APO measurements are only available for one UK site at this time, our analysis focuses on the Weybourne station. Model–data comparisons for two additional UK sites (Heathfield and Ridge Hill) in 2021, using ocean flux climatologies, are presented in the Supplement. Of the factors that could potentially compromise simulated APO-derived fossil fuel CO 2 (ffCO 2) estimates, we find that the ocean O 2 flux estimate has the largest overall influence at the three sites in the UK. At times, this influence is comparable in magnitude to the contribution of simulated fossil fuel CO 2 to simulated APO. We find that simulations using different ocean fluxes differ from each other substantially. No single model estimate, or a model estimate that assumed zero ocean flux, provided a significantly closer fit than any other. Furthermore, the uncertainty in the ocean contribution to APO could lead to uncertainty in defining an appropriate regional background from the data. Our findings suggest that the contribution of non-terrestrial sources needs to be better accounted for in model simulations of APO in the UK to reduce the potential influence on inferred fossil fuel CO 2 using APO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Under the label "future-proofing", this paper examines the temporal component of sustainable construction as an unexplored, yet fundamental ingredient in the delivery of low-energy domestic buildings. The overarching aim is to explore the integration of future-proofed design approaches into current mainstream construction practice in the UK, focusing on the example of the Code for Sustainable Homes (CSH) tool. Regulation has been the most significant driver for achieving the 2016 zero-carbon target; however, there is a gap between the appeal for future-proofing and the lack of effective implementation by building professionals. Even though the CSH was introduced as the leading tool to drive the "step-change" required for achieving zero-carbon new homes by 2016 and the single national standard to encourage energy performance beyond current statutory minima, it lacks assessment criteria that explicitly promote a futures perspective. Based on an established conceptual model of future-proofing, 14 interviews with building practitioners in the UK were conducted to identify the "feasible" and "reasonably feasible" future-proofed design approaches with the potential to enhance the "Energy and CO 2 Emissions" category of the CSH. The findings are categorised under three key aspects; namely: coverage of sustainability issues; adopting lifecycle thinking; and accommodating risks and uncertainties and seek to inform industry practice and policy-making in relation to building energy performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper demonstrates how Linear Programming (LP) can be applied to assist in the choice of renewable energy technologies for use in buildings to meet CO2 emissions reduction targets. Since there are many possibilities for combining different renewable technologies, the capital costs associated with the installation of one or more renewables can vary widely. In terms of capital investment the preferred solution will be the one at least cost, and LP provides an effective way to find this minimum through the so-called “objective function”. This project has used “lp_solve”, a free-source Mixed Integer Linear Programming solver that has been embedded in a Microsoft Excel application called Carbon emissions And Renewables for Building OPtimisation Toolkit (CARB-OPT) developed by RES Ltd in collaboration with London South Bank University (Renewable Environmental Services Ltd. (RES) is the environmental consultancy of Long and Partners Engineering Group. RES is currently involved in a Knowledge Transfer Partnerships (KTP) project in conjunction with the Faculty of Engineering, Science and the Building Environment (ESBE) at London South Bank University). This paper reports the application of this LP optimisation process for an office building case study with four alternative combinations of renewables. The process showed the technology mix that would lead to the smallest investment needed to comply with UK Building Regulations requirements and regional planning targets. In addition, the process offers a robust methodology to test the impact that the key assumptions may have upon the optimum solution. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The UK's 2050 net-zero emission target is one of the most ambitious goals in the world. Organisations should play a vital role by communicating a sufficient level of carbon emission information with the stakeholders. Motivated by the necessity of measuring the level of carbon disclosure, this paper provides a unique carbon emission disclosure measurement based on a sample of UK firms from 2013 to 2019. We apply different methods to assess the validity and reliability of our developed measurement. The results suggest that our measurement captures the actual CO2 emission, including scope 1, scope 2, and also captures the environmental, social and governance (ESG) score. Additionally, we explore the association between capital expenditure, corporate governance and the level of carbon emission disclosure. Further, the results show a positive relationship between capital expenditure and carbon emission disclosure. Also, there is a significant positive relationship between internal governance and carbon emission disclosure. Moreover, the analysis suggests that internal governance strengthen the relationship between capital expenditure and carbon emission disclosure. We also use quantile regression, and the findings show that capital expenditure and internal governance have a positive impact on carbon emission disclosure under all quantiles. Our data suggest that capital expenditure declines within the UK by around 53% over the last six years. Following the reduction in capital expenditure, the results demonstrate 39% decline in the CO2 emission level. The results also indicate that for every $1 million capital expenditure, approximately 2.75 Metric tons of carbon dioxide (MtCO2) emissions increase. Business investment is around 70% of the UK's total investment. Therefore, the reduction in capital expenditure is one of the primary reasons that might explain the decrease in the UK's overall CO2 emission level. The unique findings of this paper are relevant to the government, management and standard-setters. • Novel measurement of corporate carbon emission disclosure. • Our novel carbon disclosure measurement encapsulates actual CO2 emission. • This measure also captures Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) score. • Capital expenditure is positively related with carbon emission disclosure. • Internal governance moderates this relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper quantifies the impacts of policy objectives on the composition of an optimum new passenger vehicle fleet. The objectives are to reduce individually absolute energy use and associated emissions of CO 2 , NO x and PM 2.5 . This work combines a top down, diversity-led approach to fleet composition with bottom-up models of 23 powertrain variants across nine vehicle segments. Changing the annual distance travelled only led to the smallest change in fleet composition because driving less mitigated the need to shift to smaller vehicles or more efficient powertrains. Instead, managing activity led to a ‘re-petrolisation’ of the fleet which yielded the largest reductions in emissions of NO x and PM 2.5 . The hybrid approach of changing annual distance travelled and increasing willingness to accept longer payback times incorporates management of vehicle activity with consumers’ demand for novel vehicle powertrains. Combining these changes in behaviour, without feebates, allowed the hybrid approach to return the largest reductions in energy use and CO 2 emissions. Introducing feebates makes low-emitting vehicles more affordable and represents a supply side push for novel powertrains. The largest reductions in energy use and associated emissions occurred without any consumer behaviour change, but required large fees (£79–99 per g CO 2 /km) on high-emitting vehicles and were achieved using the most specialised fleets. However, such fleets may not present consumers with sufficient choice to be attractive. The fleet with best diversity by vehicle size and powertrain type was achieved with both the external incentive of the feebate and consumers modifying their activity. This work has a number of potential audiences: governments and policy makers may use the framework to understand how to accommodate the growth in vehicle use with pledged reductions in emissions; and original equipment manufacturers may take advantage of the bottom-up, vehicle powertrain inputs to understand the role their technology can play in a fleet under the influence of consumer behaviour change, external incentives and policy objectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS) is a key element in the United Kingdom Government strategy for reducing carbon dioxide (CO 2) emissions. The UK aims to capture and store 10 million tonnes of CO 2 each year by 2030. At each stage in the CCUS infrastructure, accurate measurement of the CO 2 flow rate is required, over a range of temperatures, pressures, flow rates and fluid phases, where the flow measurement must be validated through a credible traceability chain. The traceability chain provides the underpinning confidence required to verify meter performance, financial and fiscal transactions, and environmental compliance. The UK equivalent of the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) specifies a maximum uncertainty value for CO 2 flow measurement. Accordingly, the provision of accurate and traceable flow measurement of CO 2 is a prerequisite for an operational CCUS scheme. However, there are currently no CO 2 flow measurement facilities, nationally or internationally, providing traceable flow calibrations of gas phase, liquid/dense phase and supercritical phase CO 2 that replicate real-world CCUS conditions. This lack of traceable CO 2 gas and liquid flow measurement facilities and associated flow measurement standards is a significant barrier to the successful implementation of CCUS projects worldwide. This paper presents an overview of the traceability chain required for CO 2 flow measurement in the UK and globally. Current challenges are described along with potential solutions and opportunities for the flow measurement community. • Presents an overview of the measurement challenge arising from the physical properties of CO 2. • Discusses the role of flow measurement in enabling CCUS. • Identifies the flow measurement technologies for CCUS. • Highlights the current traceability chain and regulations with respect to CO 2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we report on an in-house developed electronic nose (E-nose) for use with breath analysis. The unit consists of an array of 10 micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) metal oxide (MOX) gas sensors produced by seven manufacturers. Breath sampling of end-tidal breath is achieved using a heated sample tube, capable of monitoring sampling-related parameters, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), humidity, and temperature. A simple mobile app was developed to receive real-time data from the device, using Wi-Fi communication. The system has been tested using chemical standards and exhaled breath samples from healthy volunteers, before and after taking a peppermint capsule. Results from chemical testing indicate that we can separate chemical standards (acetone, isopropanol and 1-propanol) and different concentrations of isobutylene. The analysis of exhaled breath samples demonstrate that we can distinguish between pre- and post-consumption of peppermint capsules; area under the curve (AUC): 0.81, sensitivity: 0.83 (0.59–0.96), specificity: 0.72 (0.47–0.90), p-value: <0.001. The functionality of the developed device has been demonstrated with the testing of chemical standards and a simplified breath study using peppermint capsules. It is our intention to deploy this system in a UK hospital in an upcoming breath research study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• I develop a novel method for public appraisal of five policy relevant CDR methods. • The British public support the inclusion of CDR in UK climate policy. • 'Natural' CDR is preferred but likely a result of prevailing Romanticist thought. • 'Technological' CDR is less polarising and may be held back by the nature framing. • Highest support is from egalitarians, older people, men, and higher social grades. Efforts to deliver on net zero emissions targets are set to rely on carbon dioxide removal (CDR) methods. Democratic, trustworthy and socially intelligent research, development, demonstration and deployment of CDR methods in aid of net zero will be highly dependent on how different publics evaluate them, and ultimately which groups support or oppose them. This paper develops a novel, nationally representative method for the multi-criteria appraisal of five policy relevant CDR methods – plus an option not to pursue CDR at all – by members of the British public (n = 2,111). The results show that the public supports the inclusion of CDR in UK climate policy. CDR methods often characterised as 'natural' or 'nature-based' are appraised more highly than 'technological' ones, in the descending order: habitat restoration, afforestation, wood in construction, bioenergy with carbon capture and storage, and direct air carbon capture and storage. Yet, there is no significant disagreement in the appraisal of technological methods and they therefore may be less polarizing, suggesting that popular preconceptions of what is natural – and therefore more attractive – may be holding them back. CDR methods being mainly developed by public sector and non-governmental organisations are also appraised more highly than those being developed by private interests. Regional differences in option appraisal reveal where particular CDR methods are more or less likely to be supported or opposed; stressing the importance of matching physical requirements for CDR with appropriate social contexts. Demographic and socio-economic analyses show that people who appraise CDR methods most highly tend to be older respondents, male, or of a higher social grade. Finally, those with hierarchical worldviews and who voted 'leave' in the UK's referendum on EU membership are less supportive of CDR than those with egalitarian worldviews and who voted 'remain'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past decade there has been significant pressure to minimise emissions and safety risks related to commercial driving. This pressure to meet the triple bottom line of cost, environment, and society has often resulted in the rapid application of vehicle technologies designed to mitigate undesired effects. Often the cognitive and behavioural effects of technologies on the commercial driver have not received in-depth analysis to determine comprehensive viability. As such, this paper aims to identify a timescale for implementation for future technologies for UK road freight, and likely associated human factors issues, improving upon the currently employed 'trial-and-error' approach to implementation which may carry high economic, environmental, safety-related risk. Thought experiments are carried out to broadly explore these future systems. Furthermore, this work aims to examine whether technology alone will be enough to meet future CO2 reduction targets, and assess the role of behavioural and systems interventions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The United Kingdom (UK) has a decarbonisation strategy that includes energy from both hydrogen and biomethane. The latter comes from the growing anaerobic digestion (AD) market, which in 2020 produced 23.3 TWh of energy in the form of biogas. According to the strategy, this must be upgraded to biomethane by removal of carbon dioxide (CO2): a goal that could also be fulfilled through CO2 biomethanisation, alleviating the need for carbon capture and storage. Results are presented from a survey of publicly available datasets coupled with modelling to identify potential scale and knowledge gaps. Literature data were used to estimate maximum biomethane concentrations by feedstock type: these ranged from 79% for food wastes to 93% for livestock manures. Data from various government sources were used to estimate the overall potential for CO2 biomethanisation with current AD infrastructure. Values for the uplift in biomethane production ranged from 57% to 61%, but the need for more consistent data collection methodologies was highlighted. On average, however, if CO2 biomethanisation was applied in all currently operating UK AD plants an energy production uplift of 12,954 GWh could be achieved based on 2020 figures. This is sufficient to justify the inclusion of CO2 biomethanisation in decarbonisation strategies, in the UK and worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Surface ocean carbon dioxide (CO2) measurements are used to compute the oceanic air–sea CO2 flux. The CO2 flux component from rivers and estuaries is uncertain due to the high spatial and seasonal heterogeneity of CO2 in coastal waters. Existing high-quality CO2 instrumentation predominantly utilises showerhead and percolating style equilibrators optimised for open-ocean observations. The intervals between measurements made with such instrumentation make it difficult to resolve the fine-scale spatial variability of surface water CO2 at timescales relevant to the high frequency variability in estuarine and coastal environments. Here we present a novel dataset with unprecedented frequency and spatial resolution transects made at the Western Channel Observatory in the south-west of the UK from June to September 2016, using a fast-response seawater CO2 system. Novel observations were made along the estuarine–coastal continuum at different stages of the tide and reveal distinct spatial patterns in the surface water CO2 fugacity (fCO2) at different stages of the tidal cycle. Changes in salinity and fCO2 were closely correlated at all stages of the tidal cycle and suggest that the mixing of oceanic and riverine endmembers partially determines the variations in fCO2. The correlation between salinity and fCO2 was different in Cawsand Bay, which could be due to enhanced gas exchange or to enhanced biological activity in the region. The observations demonstrate the complex dynamics determining spatial and temporal patterns of salinity and fCO2 in the region. Spatial variations in observed surface salinity were used to validate the output of a regional high-resolution hydrodynamic model. The model enables a novel estimate of the air–sea CO2 flux in the estuarine–coastal zone. Air–sea CO2 flux variability in the estuarine–coastal boundary region is influenced by the state of the tide because of strong CO2 outgassing from the river plume. The observations and model output demonstrate that undersampling the complex tidal and mixing processes characteristic of estuarine and coastal environment biases quantification of air–sea CO2 fluxes in coastal waters. The results provide a mechanism to support critical national and regional policy implementation by reducing uncertainty in carbon budgets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective To estimate the carbon footprint of behavioural support services for smoking cessation: text message support, telephone counselling, group counselling and individual counselling. Design Carbon footprint analysis. Data source Publicly available data on National Health Service Stop Smoking Services and per unit carbon emissions; published effectiveness data from the txt2stop trial and systematic reviews of smoking cessation services. Main outcome measures Carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e) per 1000 smokers, per lifetime quitter, and per quality-adjusted life year gained, and cost-effectiveness, including social cost of carbon, of smoking cessation services. Results Emissions per 1000 participants were 8143 kg CO2e for text message support, 8619 kg CO2e for telephone counselling, 16 114 kg CO2e for group counselling and 16 372 kg CO2e for individual counselling. Emissions per intervention lifetime quitter were 636 (95% CI 455 to 958) kg CO2e for text message support, 1051 (95% CI 560 to 2873) kg CO2e for telephone counselling, 1143 (95% CI 695 to 2270) kg CO2e for group counselling and 2823 (95% CI 1688 to 6549) kg CO2e for individual counselling. Text message, telephone and group counselling remained cost-effective when costeffectiveness analysis was revised to include the environmental and economic cost of damage from carbon emissions. Conclusions All smoking cessation services had low emissions compared to the health gains produced. Text message support had the lowest emissions of the services evaluated. Smoking cessation services have small carbon footprints and were cost-effective after accounting for the societal costs of greenhouse gas emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In this paper we attempt an empirical application of the multi-region input–output (MRIO) method proposed by Turner, Lenzen, Wiedmann and Barrett [Turner, K., Lenzen, M., Wiedmann, T., Barrett, J., 2007. Examining the global environmental impact of regional consumption activities — part 1: a technical note on combining input–output and ecological footprint analysis. Ecological Economics 62 (1), 37–44] in a recent issue of this journal in order to enumerate the CO2 pollution content of interregional trade flows between Scotland and the rest of the UK (RUK). We extend the analysis to account for direct emissions generation by households, as final consumers, and to a social accounting matrix (SAM), where a more comprehensive account of incomes and expenditures is possible. While the existence of significant data problems mean that the quantitative results of this study should be regarded as provisional, the interregional economy-environment IO and SAM framework for Scotland and RUK allows an illustrative analysis of some very important issues in terms of the nature and significance of interregional environmental spillovers within the UK and the existence of a CO2 ‘trade balance’ between Scotland and RUK. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The UK Climate Change Bill proposes to establish legally binding targets for a 60% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by 2050. This paper discusses the challenges posed by measuring progress towards this target. It takes as a premise that the conventional production-based accounting framework, enshrined in the UNFCCC emissions accounting guidelines, is inappropriate for this task because it fails to account for the carbon ‘traded’ across the UK national boundary. Accordingly, it sets out a consumption-based accounting framework – using a two-region Environmental Input–Output (EIO) model – which could in principle measure progress in reducing the emissions attributable to final consumers in the UK. It illustrates the use of this framework to measure the reduction in carbon dioxide achieved by the UK between 1990 (the Kyoto base year) and the year 2004 and compares this against the production perspective. The results indicate that any progress towards the UK''s carbon reduction targets (visible under a production perspective) disappears completely when viewed from a consumption perspective. But the robustness of this conclusion depends critically on the accuracy of underlying economic and environmental datasets as well as specific assumptions concerning imports. By analysing the consistency of UK Input–Output data, we conclude that EIO is still some way from being able to answer the critical question of the carbon trade balance for the UK. In these circumstances, measuring real progress towards carbon reduction in the UK remains elusive. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Assessed CO 2 shipping as a global decarbonisation strategy for future developments. • Identified technical and safety challenges encountered during in CO 2 shipping chain. • Evaluated the environmental impact of shipping emissions in the transport chain. • Summarised emission control technologies as a key enabler in the CO 2 shipping chain. Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS) can reduce greenhouse gas emissions for a range of technologies which capture CO 2 from a variety of sources and transport it to permanent storage locations such as depleted oil fields or saline aquifers or supply it for use. CO 2 transport is the intermediate step in the CCUS chain and can use pipeline systems or sea carriers depending on the geographical location and the size of the emitter. In this paper, CO 2 shipping is critically reviewed in order to explore its techno-economic feasibility in comparison to other transportation options. This review provides an overview of CO 2 shipping for CCUS and scrutinises its potential role for global CO 2 transport. It also provides insights into the technological advances in marine carrier CO 2 transportation for CCUS, including preparation for shipping, and in addition investigates existing experience and discusses relevant transport properties and optimum conditions. Thus far, liquefied CO 2 transportation by ship has been mainly used in the food and brewery industries for capacities varying between 800 m3 and 1000 m3. However, CCUS requires much greater capacities and only limited work is available on the large-scale transportation needs for the marine environment. Despite most literature suggesting conditions near the triple-point, in-depth analysis shows optimal transport conditions to be case sensitive and related to project variables. Ship-based transport of CO 2 is a better option to decarbonise dislocated emitters over long distances and for relatively smaller quantities in comparison to offshore pipeline, as pipelines require a continuous flow of compressed gas and have a high cost-dependency on distance. Finally, this work explores the potential environmental footprint of marine chains, with particular reference to the energy implications and emissions from ships and their management. A careful scrutiny of potential future developments highlights the fact, that despite some existing challenges, implementation of CO 2 shipping is crucial to support CCUS both in the UK and worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The future status of peatlands as carbon stores/sinks is uncertain given current and predicted environmental change. Several factors can affect the magnitude of the peatland carbon sink including disturbances such as wildfire. There is at present little evidence of how wildfire affects the emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) via perturbation to aerobic and anaerobic respiration. The greatest effects, which are likely to vary according to wildfire severity, would be expected in the immediate post-fire stages when little recovery has taken place. Here, we investigate five UK peatland wildfires (2011–2012) in the immediate post-wildfire period measuring CO2 and CH4 fluxes using static chambers. Fire severity was described using a modified form of the composite burn index. A hierarchical partitioning approach indicated time since fire was the most strongly associated variable that fluxes of both CO2, and CH4 followed by soil temperature for CO2 and fire severity for CH4. Using a liner mixed modelling approach to account for repeated measures; fire severity was a significant term for CH4 and borderline significant for CO2. Mean fluxes of CH4 were consistently lower on burnt sites. In contrast, data from a fire in the north of Scotland appeared to show the opposite relationship for CH4 with higher fluxes on the burnt sites. These results suggest that wildfire can affect gaseous carbon fluxes, but the responses can be variable in both space and time and that disruption to anaerobic processes may be site and/or fire dependent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Paris Agreement on climate change has calls for urgent, radical, and transformative actions in mitigation and adaptation, particularly in terms of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. There are many terms used to describe the process of reducing GHGs, including decarbonization, low carbon development (LCD) or low carbon transition (LCT). The conceptualization of these terms remains puzzling and there has not been any consensus to explain the meaning and their interrelationship. Clearer definition and conceptual boundaries are necessary to improve the coherence of overarching practices to cut CO 2 emission. The paper aims to review key concepts related to climate change mitigation related to the reduction of CO 2 and efforts toward net-zero emission in the academic literature, by (1) examining progress of the literature over time, (2) identifying geographical locus and sectoral focus of the literature, (3) determining the interrelationships between the key concepts. We use a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) method for data collection by selecting peer-reviewed literature from Scopus and analyzing the data with content analysis and bibliometric analysis. The findings are, firstly, the publications of the literature are influenced by global and national climate change policies and the interest of scholars affiliated to institutions from major emitter countries. Therefore, the literature is mostly originating from countries that emit the most CO 2 while also implement mitigations to reduce CO 2 emission. Secondly, China is the country where studies are mostly focused and also where the authors are affiliated/located. However, publications from the United Kingdom are cited the most. Thirdly, there are three clusters of literature found, namely that LCD and LCT are the terms used to identify visions for climate mitigation, while decarbonization is the actions and processes to achieve either LCD or LCT (as the visions). • The dynamic of climate change policies influence the literature trend. • The literature is mostly originating from major CO 2 emitter. • Low carbon development and low carbon transition are visional terms. • Decarbonization indicates the processes of decoupling CO 2 to achieve the visions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Potato blackleg and soft rot caused by Pectobacterium and Dickeya species are among the most significant bacterial diseases affecting potato production globally. In this study we estimate the impact of future temperatures on establishment of non-indigenous but confirmed Pectobacterium and Dickeya species in Great Britain (GB). The calculations are based on probabilistic climate change data and a model fitted to disease severity data from a controlled environment tuber assay with the dominant potato blackleg and soft rot-causing species in GB (P. atrosepticum), and three of the main causative agents in Europe (P. carotovorum subsp. brasiliense, P. parmentieri, Dickeya solani). Our aim was to investigate if the European strains could become stronger competitors in the GB potato ecosystem as the climate warms, on the basis of their aggressiveness in tubers at different temperatures. Principally, we found that the tissue macerating capacity of all four pathogens will increase in GB under all emissions scenarios. The predominant Pectobacterium and Dickeya species in Europe are able to cause disease in tubers under field conditions currently seen in GB but are not expected to become widely established in the future, at least on the basis of their aggressiveness in tubers relative to P. atrosepticum under GB conditions. Our key take-home messages are that the GB potato industry is well positioned to continue to thrive via current best management practices and continued reinforcement of existing legislation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. We reviewed the English-language literature on the energy burden and environmental impact of health services. Methods. We searched all years of the PubMed, CINAHL, and ScienceDirect databases for publications reporting energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, or the environmental impact of health-related activities. We extracted and tabulated data to enable cross-comparisons among different activities and services; where possible, we calculated per patient or per event emissions. Results. We identified 38 relevant publications. Per patient or per event, health-related energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions are quite modest; in the aggregate, however, they are considerable. In England and the United States, health-related emissions account for 3% and 8% of total national emissions, respectively. Conclusions. Although reducing health-related energy consumption and emissions alone will not resolve all of the problems of energy scarcity and climate change, it could make a meaningful contribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Northern peatlands are recognized as globally important stores of terrestrial carbon (C), yet we have limited understanding of how global changes, including land use, affect C cycling processes in these ecosystems. Making use of a long-term (>50 year old) peatland land management experiment in the UK, we investigated, using a CO pulse chase approach, how managed burning and grazing influenced the short-term uptake and cycling of C through the plant-soil system. We found that burning affected the composition and growth stage of the plant community, by substantially reducing the abundance of mature ericoid dwarf-shrubs. Burning also affected the structure of the soil microbial community, measured using phospholipid fatty acid analysis, by reducing fungal biomass. There was no difference in net ecosystem exchange of CO but burning was associated with an increase in photosynthetic uptake of CO and increased transfer of C to the soil microbial community relative to unburned areas. In contrast, grazing had no detectable effects on any measured C cycling process. Our study provides new insight into how changes in vegetation and soil microbial communities arising from managed burning affect peatland C cycling processes, by enhancing the uptake of photosynthetic C and the transfer of C belowground, whilst maintaining net ecosystem exchange of CO at pre-burn levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate policy is driving an extensive deployment of wind generation in the Irish electricity market. This study evaluates the cost of increasing wind generation both to the system as a whole and to consumers for 2020. We consider different scenarios on fuel and carbon-dioxide permit prices and the extent of electricity interconnection with Great Britain. For a small and isolated electricity system such as Ireland, a high penetration of wind is economically sound only with increased interconnection to Great Britain, since wind generation would otherwise be curtailed. Not surprisingly, for low fuel prices the least-cost scenario contains low levels of wind generation whereas the opposite is true for high fuel prices. The findings highlight the importance of interconnection and its operation and governance. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The UK's Climate Change Act offers a framework for civil society to achieve ‘low carbon’ realignment through to 2050. The Act is reviewed for its coherence as a mechanism for directing future policy. The legislation establishes a carbon budgetary process, mandates greenhouse gas reduction targets and strategies, and imposes a novel range of duties supported by processes for ensuring transparency concerning progress. Following an overview of climate change risks and likely economic consequences, the analysis identifies selected regulatory strategies. It explores the main statutory features, with an emphasis upon the implications of imposing mandatory duties on decision makers. An evaluation of the key policy choice of emissions trading is informed by perspectives of environmental justice, in particular as to questions of equitable burden-sharing in relation to impacts of climate change and related policies. A concluding section summarises reasonable expectations and ongoing challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Argues against Great Britain's energy policy toward renewable energies and nuclear power. Views of scientists on renewable energies; Disagreement on the Energy White Paper proposal of the government; Opinion of Ian Fells, chairman of the new and renewable energy centre, on carbon dioxide levels; Cost of off-shore wind turbines; Percentage of Great Britain's energy that should come from nuclear power.

Hardman-Mountford, N. J., Moore, G., Bakker, D. C. E., Watson, A. J., Schuster, U., Barciela, R., Hines, A., Moncoiffé, G., Brown, J., Dye, S., Blackford, J., Somerfield, P. J., Holt, J., Hydes, D. J., and Aiken, J. 2008. An operational monitoring system to provide indicators of CO2-related variables in the ocean. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 65: 1498–1503.Demand by governments and scientists is increasing for indicators of CO2-related variables for the ocean. We describe a recent project, CARBON-OPS, during which a “supply chain” was developed for automated measurement of pCO2 in the surface of the ocean, data processing, and its use in providing information for research and policy development. Data are gathered by new pCO2 measurement systems on five UK research ships in the Southern Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and northwestern European shelf seas. These send data in near-real-time, via satellite communication systems, to the British Oceanographic Data Centre, where they are automatically processed, quality controlled, and archived. The data are then delivered to the UK Met Office and others for use in testing predictions from operational ocean models. These models will generate indicator products and assist government through the Marine Climate Change Impact Partnership, a partnership of scientists, government, its agencies, and NGOs, by providing information on ocean CO2 uptake, changes in ocean pH, and potential impacts on global climate and marine ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Residential variable energy price schemes can be made more effective with the use of a demand response (DR) strategy along with smart appliances. Using DR, the electricity bill of participating customers/households can be minimised, while pursuing other aims such as demand-shifting and maximising consumption of locally generated renewable-electricity. In this article, a two-stage optimization method is used to implement a price-based implicit DR scheme. The model considers a range of novel smart devices/technologies/schemes, connected to smart-meters and a local DR-Controller. A case study with various decarbonisation scenarios is used to analyse the effects of deploying the proposed DR-scheme in households located in the west area of the Isle of Wight (Southern United Kingdom). There are approximately 15,000 households, of which 3000 are not connected to the gas-network. Using a distribution network model along with a load flow software-tool, the secondary voltages and apparent-power through transformers at the relevant substations are computed. The results show that in summer, participating households could export up to 6.4 MW of power, which is 10% of installed large-scale photovoltaics (PV) capacity on the island. Average carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) reductions of 7.1 ktons/annum and a reduction in combined energy/transport fuel-bills of 60%/annum could be achieved by participating households. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a common cause of chronic respiratory failure and its course is punctuated by a series of acute exacerbations which commonly lead to hospital admission. Exacerbations are managed through the application of non-invasive ventilation and, when this fails, tracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation. The need for mechanical ventilation significantly increases the risk of death. An alternative therapy, extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal (ECCO2R), has been shown to be efficacious in removing carbon dioxide from the blood; however, its impact on respiratory physiology and patient outcomes has not been explored.Methods/design: A randomised controlled open label trial of patients (12 in each arm) with acute exacerbations of COPD at risk of failing conventional therapy (NIV) randomised to either remaining on NIV or having ECCO2R added to NIV with a primary endpoint of time to cessation of NIV. The change in respiratory physiology following the application of ECCO2R and/or NIV will be measured using electrical impedance tomography, oesophageal pressure and parasternal electromyography. Additional outcomes, including patient tolerance, outcomes, need for readmission, changes in blood gases and biochemistry and procedural complications, will be measured. Physiological changes will be compared within one patient over time and between the two groups. Healthcare costs in the UK system will also be compared between the two groups.Discussion: COPD is a common disease and exacerbations are a leading cause of hospital admission in the UK and worldwide, with a sizeable mortality. The management of patients with COPD consumes significant hospital and financial resources. This study seeks to understand the feasibility of a novel approach to the management of patients with acute exacerbations of COPD as well as to understand the underlying physiological changes to explain why the approach does or does not assist this patient cohort. Detailed respiratory physiology has not been previously undertaken using this technique and there are no other randomised controlled trials currently in the literature.Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02086084. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Site studies have shown that conifer plantations in northern Britainhave increased in General Yield Class (GYC) by 1 m3 ha-1 a-1 per decade or more (20-40 per cent) since the 1930s. Large increases in forest productivity have also occurred in many other regions of Europe. Are these increases due to improved silvicultural practices or to increases in N deposition, CO2 and temperature? Two process-based mathematical models of forest growth were used to simulate the responses of conifer forests growing in the Scottish southern uplands to increases in atmospheric N deposition, CO2 concentration and temperature, during this century and next century. The models differed substantially in the ways in which underlying processes were represented: one simulated a managed plantation, the other a natural forest. Nevertheless, both showed that: (1) increases in N deposition, CO2 and temperature together might account for up to half of the observed increase in GYC this century; (2) increased N deposition and CO2, considered separately, probably increased forest productivity by a modest amount(7-14 per cent), but their combined effect has been approximately additive; (3) increased temperature, even when combined with increasingCO2 concentrations, promoted growth less than expected from site studies relating GYC to temperature; and (4) substantial further increases in productivity, GYC, leaf area index and standing biomass are forecast during the next century as a result of increasing CO2 concentrations and continued N deposition, with or without climatic warming. The predicted increases in GYC could be large enough to have profound effects on the forest industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]