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Examines agricultural productivity growth in the Andean Region. Rate of total factor productivity growth; Importance of land quality, war and violence and political freedoms in understanding behavioral differences across countries.

Copyright of Revista Iberoamericana de Estudios de Desarrollo is the property of Revista Iberoamericana de Estudios de Desarrollo and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Directed social and cultural change in which a systemic conceptual scheme is utilized in the analysis is the theme of this paper, which describes the first year's operation of a project in supervised agricultural credit in a Peruvian highland community and analyzes it in terms of the dynamic aspects of systemic elements such as goals, norms, sanctions, power, and so forth. The conclusion to the paper summarizes an explanation of the events occurring during the year. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In papers previously published in this journal J. M. Stycos and D. M. Heer have shown that fertility is lower in the economically underdeveloped Indian-speaking parts of Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia than in the more prosperous Spanish-speaking parts. Stycos concluded that the reason for the fertility difference in Peru is the greater marital instability of the Indian speakers which decreased their total exposure to the risk of conception. Heer suggested instead that the causes of the difference may be voluntary. The present paper questions Heer's analysis, and offers the explanation that the difference may be attributed to the physiological effects of altitude. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the threats to Indigenous water rights and territories in the Andean countries. It analyzes how water and water rights are embedded in Indigenous territories, and how powerful actors and intervention projects tend to undermine local societies and indigenous livelihoods by developing large-scale water infrastructure. Three cases illustrate the encroachment process. In Colombia, the Embera Katio people's water territory is colonized by a large-scale hydropower development project. In Ecuador, large-scale drinking water development for megacities aims the water belonging to the Oyacachi community's indigenous highland territory. In Peru, communal water rights of the Colca Valley indigenous peasantry are under threat because of large-scale irrigation development. As the cases show, Indigenous peoples and communities actively contest the undermining and subordination of their water and territorial rights through a myriad of multi-scalar livelihood defense strategies. The challenges that indigenous peoples face to defend their water-based livelihoods are, however, enormous and growing every day. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews the experience of South America with subregional financial cooperation. It shows that this experience has been one of the most successful in the developing world, though uneven in terms of country coverage and services provided. The Andean region has been particularly successful in developing multilateral financial institutions, and development financing has been broader in scope than monetary cooperation. The two most successful institutions, the Andean Development Corporation (CAF) and the Latin American Reserve Fund (FLAR), have shown the capacity to provide services to member countries in a timely way, with countercyclical effects and on a large scale relative to other forms of multilateral financing. The strong sense of ownership of these organizations by member states, preferred creditor status, and professional management is reflected in very healthy portfolios, even in the face of default by member countries. The services of these institutions could be broadened to support, among others, the development and integration of the physical infrastructure and macroeconomic policy coordination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crustal blocks in the Central Andes have experienced vertical-axis rotations through angles ranging up to 50° or more. Blocks located north of the abrupt change in tectonic and geographical trends at Arica, northern Chile (the Arica deflection) have been rotated counter-clockwise; blocks south of the deflection rotated clockwise. Rocks ranging in age from Late Miocene to mid-Jurassic are involved. The palaeomagnetic record of this rotation is referred to as the central Andean rotation pattern (CARP). In this paper the CARP is investigated using the techniques of palaeomagnetic shape analysis. From this analysis it appears that rotation began in the early Cenozoic, and probably continues at the present time. Cenozoic rotation appears to have occurred without significant northward or southward displacement. For earlier times, however, evidence of displacement is found; the sense of displacement apparently changed at Arica—northward north of the deflection and southward further south. This Mesozoic displacement of crustal material away from Arica appears to have taken place without accompanying rotation. No existing tectonic model for the CARP explains this two-part history. Several alternative models are suggested, perhaps the least unconvincing of which involve creation of the Arica deflection during the late Mesozoic by subduction of a spreading ridge, or perhaps an island arc or other crustal-thickness anomaly riding on the Nazca (or Phoenix) Plate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The multiple meanings of Indigenous territory and property are explored here by means of a multidisciplinary lens. An ethnological journey through different geographies and times is undertaken to explain some property formation processes and illuminate how they unfold in the Andean region and, particularly, in Peru. Based on four core notions of anthropology--time, space, culture and power--Indigenous territory and property are described showing how land commodification has imposed detrimental effects on indigenous peoples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a previous paper published in the journal "Population Studies," sociologist J.M. Stycos has shown that fertility is lower in the economically underdeveloped Indian-speaking parts of Peru than in the more prosperous Spanish-speaking parts. The relationship is of theoretical significance because it has usually been assumed that there is an inverse relation between fertility and economic development. In the present paper it is shown that this relation holds not only for Peru, but for Ecuador and Bolivia as well. Stycos had concluded that the reason for the fertility difference in Peru was the greater marital instability of the Indian speakers, which decreased their total exposure to the risk of conception. Such an explanation implies that the fertility difference in question is unintended. In the present paper data are introduced which question the adequacy of Stycos' interpretation and suggest that possibly the fertility difference is due to voluntary causes. Specifically, it is shown that the Indian areas are also areas with a high proportion of females in the labor force and it is suggested that women in these areas may therefore be motivated to control their fertility to some extent possibly by means of abortion or infanticide.

The author comments on the importance of having a decision-making administrative unit and an effective operative unit in every level of executive authority in institutional systems. The paper has focused on the system in Tupicocha district in the Andean region. It was stated that the jurisdictional orbit of the governor is the entire district which is composed of the mother community and its anexos.

This article presents the author's views on the anthropological research paper "The Politics of Anthropology in the Andes," by Orin Starn, an American anthropologist. The author appreciates Starn's paper saying that it is wide-ranging and stimulating in various ways. The author holds that Starn's description of anthropologists working in the Andean region as the good outsiders is right.

Agroforestry land-use systems in the Andean region have great socioeconomical and biophysical relevance due to the abundance of products and services they provide. Biomass estimation in these systems constitutes a priority concern as it facilitates assessment of carbon sink potential and functionality for biomass production. In this paper, a set of equations were fitted to enable easy and reliable estimation of the total aboveground biomass of four frequently used species in Andean agroforestry systems: Acacia melanoxylon L., Alnus acuminata Kunth., Buddleja coriacea Remy. and Polylepis racemosa Ruiz&Pav. The best models for each biomass component (stem, thick branches, thin branches and leaves) per species were fitted simultaneously according to SUR methodology ( seemingly unrelated regressions ). All models showed high goodness of fit statistics and more than 70% of the observed variation in biomass components was explained by the independent variables. The inclusion of height as a predictive variable in the models improved their predictive reliability and expanded the application range. The models developed here are useful for assessing the sustainability of agroforestry systems and could support governmental or non-governmental forest conservation incentive programs and initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents the author's views on the anthropological research paper "The Politics of Anthropology in the Andes," by Orin Starn, an American anthropologist. The author appreciates Starn's paper saying that his avoidance of the rationalist triumphalism that imagines a congruence between knowledge and progress enables him to occupy a distinct place. According to the author, Starn makes a call for a relevant and politically engaged anthropology.

This article presents the author's views on the anthropological research paper "The Politics of Anthropology in the Andes," by Orin Starn, an American anthropologist. The author appreciates Starn's paper saying that Starn's sensitivity to issues of power and knowledge is impressive with far-reaching implications. According to the author, the paper explores basic epistemological questions that divide the social sciences and humanities.

The Younger Dryas stadial, a cold event spanning 12,800 to 11,500 years ago, during the last deglaciation, is thought to coincide with the last major glacial re-advance in the tropical Andes. This interpretation relies mainly on cosmic-ray exposure dating of glacial deposits. Recent studies, however, have established new production rates for cosmogenic 10Be and 3He, which make it necessary to update all chronologies in this region and revise our understanding of cryospheric responses to climate variability. Here we present a new 10Be moraine chronology in Colombia showing that glaciers in the northern tropical Andes expanded to a larger extent during the Antarctic cold reversal (14,500 to 12,900 years ago) than during the Younger Dryas. On the basis of a homogenized chronology of all 10Be and 3He moraine ages across the tropical Andes, we show that this behaviour was common to the northern and southern tropical Andes. Transient simulations with a coupled global climate model suggest that the common glacier behaviour was the result of Atlantic meridional overturning circulation variability superimposed on a deglacial increase in the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration. During the Antarctic cold reversal, glaciers advanced primarily in response to cold sea surface temperatures over much of the Southern Hemisphere. During the Younger Dryas, however, northern tropical Andes glaciers retreated owing to abrupt regional warming in response to reduced precipitation and land-surface feedbacks triggered by a weakened Atlantic meridional overturning circulation. Conversely, glacier retreat during the Younger Dryas in the southern tropical Andes occurred as a result of progressive warming, probably influenced by an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide. Considered with evidence from mid-latitude Andean glaciers, our results argue for a common glacier response to cold conditions in the Antarctic cold reversal exceeding that of the Younger Dryas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the distribution of vascular plants species endemic to the southern central Andes (south-western Bolivia and north-western Argentina). All 540 species endemic to the study regions (approx. 720600 km²) have been included in the analysis. The main part of the endemic species is found in semiarid habitats between 1500-3500 m asl pointing to the topographically complex plateau, slope, and valley system of the southern central Andes as the main locations for its endemic flora. The distribution of the endemic species within arid sites is in contrast with that of vascular plant diversity in general, as the most diverse habitat of the region is the moist subtropical Tucumano-Bolivian Yungas forest of the eastern Andes slope. A total of 17 well defined and partly overlapping distribution patterns were indentified. The broadest distribution pattern defines a general area of endemism for the southern central Andes. This area extends through nearly the entire region and is defined by species that are widespread within the region in desert to sub-humid environments of the high Andes, slopes, or valleys. Nearly all other areas of endemism are nested within this broad distribution pattern as successively north-south overlapping areas along the slopes and valleys of the Andes and the Pampeanas Range. Despite the distributional bias of endemism towards the arid sites almost half of the endemic species are restricted to a few high endemic areas that lie in juxtaposition to the main rainfall zones. These areas contain the widest habitat ranges in terms of altitude and rainfall within the region with the endemic species being equally variable in altitude and moisture requirements. Previous defined phytogeographic units were not recognized among the distribution patterns. However, the northern part of the Prepuna can be defined as two partly overlapping distribution patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Andean mountain range has played an important role in the evolution of South American biota. However, there is little understanding of the patterns of species diversity across latitudinal and altitudinal gradients. In this paper, we examine the diversity of small mammals along the South Central Dry Andes (SCDA) within the framework of two contrasting hypotheses: (a) species richness decreases with increasing elevation and latitude; and (b) species richness peaks at altitudinal midpoints (mid-domain). We explore the composition of the species pool, the impact of species-area relationships and the Rapoport effect (i.e. size of geographic ranges) along latitudinal and elevational gradients. First, we constructed a database of SCDA small mammals. Then, species richness patterns were analysed through generalized models, and species-area relationships were assessed by log-log regressions; the curvilinear method (c = S/Az) was use to compute richness corrected by area size. Lastly, the Rapoport effect was evaluated using the midpoint method. Our results show: (1) a richness of 67 small mammals along the SCDA, of which 36 are endemic; (2) a hump-shaped pattern in species richness along elevation and latitudinal gradients; (3) a species-area relationship for both gradients; (4) endemic species corrected by area present a strong and positive relationship with elevation; (5) a Rapoport effect for the latitudinal ranges, but no effect across the elevational gradient; and (6) a major species turnover between 28° and 30° south latitude. This is the first study quantifying the diversity of small mammals encompassing the central Andean region. Overall, our macrogeographic analysis supports the previously postulated role of the Andes in the diversification of small mammals (i.e. in situ cladogenesis) and highlights some basic attributes (i.e. anatomy of geographic ranges; species-area relationships) when considering the consequences of climate change on biodiversity conservation of mountain ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As more consumers, firms, and governments become aware of environmental degradation and take measures to abate their negative contribution, green practices will play a more prominent role in corporate management. This paper conducts a literature review of firm greening modes, the proposed benefits of firm greening, implementation approaches, and green marketing in order to propose a framework for analyzing firm greening in the international arena, paying particular attention to behavior within developing countries. A survey administered to general managers of three hundred and seventeen small and medium sized Colombian, Ecuadorian, and Venezuelan firms determines the managerial perceptions of greening activities in Andean firms. Though Andean managers are environmentally aware, they do not conduct adequate levels of measurement, auditing, and reporting. Also, the concept of stakeholders and peer corporations may limit Andean firms responsiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investigations at several northern Peruvian coastal archaeological sites by archaeologists and physical anthropologists are beginning to provide details on long-term patterning of mortuary behavior. Some of these patterns include retainer sacrifice, child sacrifice, and the metaphorical principle we refer to as "like with like." In this paper, we discuss the data relating to these mortuary patterns discovered at the site of Santa Rita B in the middle Chao Valley. Examples of each of the patterns presented are evident at the site. These include at least three child sacrifices and one adult sacrifice. The sacrifices appear to he retainer sacrifices, defined as sacrifices intended to accompany a deceased principal personage in the afterlife. Time inclusion of the child sacrifices with a subadult principal burial is part of the "like with like" pattern seen here and at other Andean sites. Dating to the start of the Late Intermediate period (ca. A.D. 1100-1300), these finds are compared to other north coastal sites, both earlier and later, and the extent of temporal continuity in these patterns is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using the census data for Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador, previous writers have investigated some possible determinants of inter-regional differences in fertility; language spoken, female participation rates, and altitude. This paper points out the many sources of inaccuracy in the census data used. It argues that the indicators of unusually low fertility in the highland, predominantly Indian-speaking areas fail to control effectively for the very high levels of infant mortality in these regions. Fragmentary survey results give some indication of the scale of infant mortality, and appear to refuse the idea that fertility is exceptionally low in areas of high altitude. In an attempt to explain why such high mortality rates persist in the Andean region the main health problems of Bolvia are examined. It seems that the causes are economic and social, rather than physiological. Unfortunately a change of policy which reduced death rates would produce grave new social problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Hot spring bacteria have unique biological adaptations to survive the extreme conditions of these environments; these bacteria produce thermostable enzymes that can be used in biotechnological and industrial applications. However, sequencing these bacteria is complex, since it is not possible to culture them. As an alternative, genome shotgun sequencing of whole microbial communities can be used. The problem is that the classification of sequences within a metagenomic dataset is very challenging particularly when they include unknown microorganisms since they lack genomic reference. We failed to recover a bacterium genome from a hot spring metagenome using the available software tools, so we develop a new tool that allowed us to recover most of this genome. Results: We present a proteobacteria draft genome reconstructed from a Colombian's Andes hot spring metagenome. The genome seems to be from a new lineage within the family Rhodanobacteraceae of the class Gammaproteobacteria, closely related to the genus Dokdonella. We were able to generate this genome thanks to CLAME. CLAME, from Spanish "CLAsificador MEtagenomico", is a tool to group reads in bins. We show that most reads from each bin belong to a single chromosome. CLAME is very effective recovering most of the reads belonging to the predominant species within a metagenome. Conclusions: We developed a tool that can be used to extract genomes (or parts of them) from a complex metagenome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The precipitation is a meteorological variable studied in Argentina mainly in annual, seasonal and monthly scales. Its variability is a significant climate element and also a critical socioeconomic factor. This study aims to contribute to the knowledge of daily rainfall in Argentina. Daily records of precipitation for 66 stations provided by the Servicio Meteorológico Nacional are used (period 1991-2014). The spatial distribution of the annual precipitation presents an east-west gradient in the north of the country. In monthly scale, there are different precipitation distributions such as a double maximum in the centre-east zone or a single maximum in the northwest in summer time and in the southern Andes range during the winter. To carry out the study, the concentration index (CI) of daily precipitation with a resolution of 1 mm is used. Precipitation in Argentina, given its vast territory, presents a great variability with a wide range of rainfall regimes; CI values are found between 0.54 and 0.68. These values are categorized as high (greater than 0.61) and low (less than 0.58). The north of the country and the Atlantic coast show the highest CI values. The lower values are present in the Andes range and in the south of the country. The results are compared with other studies in the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Indiana (03418642) is the property of Ibero-Amerikanisches Institut, Preussischer Kulturbesitz and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The patchy distribution of high-Andean treeline forests has provoked discussion about the relative importance of anthropogenic and climatic causes of this pattern, both of which vary with topography. We aimed to understand the topographic controls on the distribution of Polylepis subsericans treeline forests in the Andes of southern Peru, and the changes in these controls along an elevational gradient. We mapped Polylepis forests in the Cordillera Urubamba, Cusco, using high-resolution aerial images and related forest cover to topographic variables extracted from a digital terrain model (30-m resolution). The variables were selected based on their expected biological relevance for tree growth at high elevations. We constructed logistic regression models of forest cover, separately for each of five 100-m elevational belts. To deal with spatial autocorrelation, models were based on randomized 10% subsampling of the data with 1000 repetitions. The results suggest a consistent shift in topographic preference with elevation, with forests at lower elevations showing a preference for topographically protected sites near rivers and forests at higher elevations being increasingly restricted to north-facing and well-drained sites. Our study offers the first indication of the ability of Andean treeline forests to benefit from the topographic heterogeneity of the high-Andes. Providing that dispersal and establishment are possible, local relocation between microsites could help these forests to persist regionally in spite of changing climatic conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest site classification adapted to the respective site conditions is one prerequisite for sustainable silviculture. This work aims to initiate the forest site classification for pine plantations in the southern Andean region of Ecuador. Forest productivity, estimated by the dominant height of 20-year-old trees (DH20), was related to data from climate, topography, and soil using 23 plots installed in pine plantations in the province of Loja. Forest site productivity was classified as: low (class C: 13.4 m), middle (class B: 16.6 m), and high (Class A: 22.3 m). Strong determinants to differentiate the forest site classes were: the short to medium term available Ca and K stocks (organic layer + mineral soil standardized to a depth of 60 cm), soil acidity, the C:N ratio, clay and sand content, forest floor thickness, altitude, and slope. The lowest forest productivity (Class C) is mainly associated with the lowest short to medium term available K and Ca stocks. Whereas, in site classes with the highest forest productivity, pines could benefit from a more active microbial community releasing N and P, since the soil pH was about 1 unit less acidic. This is supported by the lowest forest floor thickness and the narrowest C:N ratio. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Andean mountains of South America are the most species-rich biodiversity hotspot worldwide with c. 15% of the world's plant species, in only 1% of the world's land surface. Orchids are a key element of the Andean flora, and one of the most prominent components of the Neotropical epiphyte diversity, yet very little is known about their origin and diversification., We address this knowledge gap by inferring the biogeographical history and diversification dynamics of the two largest Neotropical orchid groups (Cymbidieae and Pleurothallidinae), using two unparalleled, densely sampled orchid phylogenies (including more than 400 newly generated DNA sequences), comparative phylogenetic methods, geological and biological datasets., We find that the majority of Andean orchid lineages only originated in the last 20-15 million yr. Andean lineages are derived from lowland Amazonian ancestors, with additional contributions from Central America and the Antilles. Species diversification is correlated with Andean orogeny, and multiple migrations and recolonizations across the Andes indicate that mountains do not constrain orchid dispersal over long timescales., Our study sheds new light on the timing and geography of a major Neotropical diversification, and suggests that mountain uplift promotes species diversification across all elevational zones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Ecologia Austral is the property of Asociacion Argentina de Ecologia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Microrefugia are important for supporting populations during periods of unfavourable climate change and in facilitating rapid migration as conditions ameliorate. With ongoing anthropogenic climate change, microrefugia could have an important conservation value; however, a simple tool has not been developed and tested to predict which settings are microrefugial., We provide a tool based on terrain ruggedness modelling of individual catchments to predict Andean microrefugia. We tested the predictions using nine Holocene Polylepis pollen records. We used the mid-Holocene dry event, a period of peak aridity for the last 100 000 yr, as an analogue climate scenario for the near future., The results suggest that sites with high terrain rugosity have the greatest chance of sustaining mesic conditions under drier-than-modern climates. Fire is a feature of all catchments; however, an increase in fire is only recorded in settings with low rugosity., Owing to rising temperatures and greater precipitation variability, Andean ecosystems are threatened by increasing moisture stress. Our results suggest that high terrain rugosity helps to create more resilient catchments by trapping moisture through orographic rainfall and providing firebreaks that shelter forest from fire. On this basis, conservation policy should target protection and management of catchments with high terrain rugosity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In contrast to Andean natives, high-altitude Tibetans present with a lower hemoglobin concentration that correlates with reproductive success and exercise capacity. Decades of physiological and genomic research have assumed that the lower hemoglobin concentration in Himalayan natives results from a blunted erythropoietic response to hypoxia (i.e., no increase in total hemoglobin mass). In contrast, herein we test the hypothesis that the lower hemoglobin concentration is the result of greater plasma volume, rather than an absence of increased hemoglobin production. We assessed hemoglobin mass, plasma volume and blood volume in lowlanders at sea level, lowlanders acclimatized to high altitude, Himalayan Sherpa, and Andean Quechua, and explored the functional relevance of volumetric hematological measures to exercise capacity. Hemoglobin mass was highest in Andeans, but also was elevated in Sherpa compared with lowlanders. Sherpa demonstrated a larger plasma volume than Andeans, resulting in a comparable total blood volume at a lower hemoglobin concentration. Hemoglobin mass was positively related to exercise capacity in lowlanders at sea level and in Sherpa at high altitude, but not in Andean natives. Collectively, our findings demonstrate a unique adaptation in Sherpa that reorientates attention away from hemoglobin concentration and toward a paradigm where hemoglobin mass and plasma volume may represent phenotypes with adaptive significance at high altitude. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this report, the first installment of a comprehensive revision of the didelphid marsupial genus Marmosops, we revise the species of the subgenus Sciophanes. Based on morphological character variation among almost 300 examined specimens-which we interpret in the context of a previously published analysis of molecular sequence data-this revision recognizes 12 valid species in three monophyletic species groups: the Parvidens Group (including M. pakaraimae, M. parvidens, and M. pinheiroi), the Fuscatus Group ( M. carri, M. fuscatus, M. handleyi, and M. invictus), and the Bishopi Group ( M. bishopi, M. juninensis, M. ojastii, and two new species). For each species we summarize information about type material, ecogeographic distribution, and diagnostic morphological characters. Despite our diligent search for relevant material in North and South American museums, the absence of any specimens of Sciophanes from vast Amazonian and Andean landscapes with seemingly suitable habitat suggests that significant range extensions and/or new species will result from future inventory fieldwork. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For over two decades the US has funded repressive forced coca eradication in Peru, Colombia and Bolivia to reduce the illegal cocaine trade. These policies have never met their stated goals and have generated violence and poverty. In 2006 Bolivia definitively broke with the US anti-narcotics model, replacing the militarized eradication of coca crops with a community-based coca control strategy. The program substantially reduced the coca crop while simultaneously respecting human rights and allowing farmers to diversify their livelihoods. This article outlines the elements of the Bolivian initiative that ensure its continued successful functioning. It explores to what extent this model can be translated to other Andean contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The south central Andes is known as a region of enduring multiethnic diversity, yet it is also the cradle of one the South America's first successful expansive-state societies. Social structures that encouraged the maintenance of separate identities among coexistent ethnic groups may explain this apparent contradiction. Although the early expansion of the Tiwanaku state (A.D. 600-1000) is often interpreted according to a centralized model derived from Old World precedents, recent archaeological research suggests a reappraisal of the socio-political organization of Tiwanaku civilization, both for the diversity of social entities within its core region and for the multiple agencies behind its wider program of agropastoral colonization. Tiwanaku's sociopolitical pluralism in both its homeland and colonies tempers some of archaeology's global assumptions about the predominant role of centralized institutions in archaic states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Helicobacter pylori infection causes gastric cancer, the third leading cause of cancer death worldwide. More than half of the world's population is infected, making universal eradication impractical. Clinical trials suggest that antibiotic treatment only reduces gastric cancer risk in patients with non-atrophic gastritis (NAG), and is ineffective once preneoplastic lesions of multifocal atrophic gastritis (MAG) and intestinal metaplasia (IM) have occurred. Therefore, additional strategies for risk stratification and chemoprevention of gastric cancer are needed. We have implicated polyamines, generated by the rate-limiting enzyme ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), in gastric carcinogenesis. During H. pylori infection, the enzyme spermine oxidase (SMOX) is induced, which generates hydrogen peroxide from the catabolism of the polyamine spermine. Herein, we assessed the role of SMOX in the increased gastric cancer risk in Colombia associated with the Andean mountain region when compared with the low-risk region on the Pacific coast. When cocultured with gastric epithelial cells, clinical strains of H. pylori from the high-risk region induced more SMOX expression and oxidative DNA damage, and less apoptosis than low-risk strains. These findings were not attributable to differences in the cytotoxin-associated gene A oncoprotein. Gastric tissues from subjects from the high-risk region exhibited greater levels of SMOX and oxidative DNA damage by immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry, and this occurred in NAG, MAG and IM. In Mongolian gerbils, a prototype colonizing strain from the high-risk region induced more SMOX, DNA damage, dysplasia and adenocarcinoma than a colonizing strain from the low-risk region. Treatment of gerbils with either α-difluoromethylornithine, an inhibitor of ODC, or MDL 72527 (N1,N4-Di(buta-2,3-dien-1-yl)butane-1,4-diamine dihydrochloride), an inhibitor of SMOX, reduced gastric dysplasia and carcinoma, as well as apoptosis-resistant cells with DNA damage. These data indicate that aberrant activation of polyamine-driven oxidative stress is a marker of gastric cancer risk and a target for chemoprevention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chenopodium quinoa Willd., is the oldest pseudocereal native from the Andean Region from 20° N in Columbia to 40°S in Chile, it grows from sea level to an altitude of 3 800 m, adapted to several agroclimates and abiotic stress. Quinoa is an annual plant that reaches a height of 0.2 to 3.0 m, it can display a variety of colours from the leaves and inflorescences. Quinoa seeds present a rich source of a variety of minerals, vitamins and higher contents of most essential amino acids, especially lysine which reveals its potential for a valuable ingredient in the preparation of highly nutritious food and also its nutraceutical properties. The high genetic variability and premises properties of quinoa make it potential to be grown worldwide, even it has been declared "The International Year of the Quinoa" (IYQ) by the United Nations in the year 2013. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mannose-binding lectin (MBL) is one of the five recognition molecules in the lectin complement pathway. Common variant alleles in the promoter and structural regions of the human MBL gene (MBL2) influence the stability and serum concentration of the protein. Epidemiological studies have shown that MBL2 variant alleles are associated with susceptibility to and the course of different types of infectious and inflammatory conditions. However, it has been suggested that these alleles are maintained in different populations due to selected advantages for carriers. We investigated the MBL2 allelic variation in indigenous individuals from 12 different West Central South America localities spanning from the desert coast, high altitude Andean plates and the Amazon tropical forest within the territories of Peru (n = 249) (Departments of Loreto, Ucayali, Lambayeque, Junin, Ayacucho, Huancayo and Puno), and Ecuador (n = 182) (Region of Esmeraldas and Santo Domingo de los Colorados). The distribution of MBL2 genotypes among the populations showed that the defective variant LYPB haplotype was very common. It showed the highest frequencies in Puno (Taquile (0.80), Amantani (0.80) and Anapia (0.58) islander communities of the Lake Titicaca), but lower frequencies of 0.22 in Junin (Central Andean highland) and Ucayali (Central Amazonian forest), as well as 0.27 and 0.24 in the Congoma and Cayapa/Chachis populations in the Amazonian forest in Ecuador were also observed. Our results suggest that the high prevalence of the MBL2 LYPB variant causing low levels of functional MBL in serum may mainly reflect a random distribution due to a population bottleneck in the founder populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents the author's views on the anthropological research paper "The Politics of Anthropology in the Andes," by Orin Starn, an American anthropologist. According to the author, Starn presents his third critique of the Andean anthropology. The author holds that Starn's point which reads that the very concept of the Andean is a product of colonial and postcolonial discourse needs to have more attention than Starn gives it.

Community evenness has recently received much attention, either because it is related to ecosystem functioning or because it may affect estimation of diversity. Temporal and environmental trends in diversity and evenness of trilobite communities during the Late Cambrian - Early Ordovician of the Cordillera Oriental (north-western Argentina) are here analysed. Richness and evenness increase through time in both deep subtidal (between fair-weather and storm wave base) and offshore (below storm wave base) communities. Two significant patterns are superimposed on this general trend: (1) the magnitude of the increase in evenness is much more pronounced in deep than in shallower settings, and (2) richness and evenness trajectories are decoupled (while a significant rise in evenness is recorded in the middle Tremadocian ( Tr2), an increase in richness is delayed until the late Tremadocian ( Tr3)). In contrast to expectations, a single family ( Olenidae) is dominant in samples associated with this earlier rise in evenness relative to richness. Hence, this trend is explained neither by the number of families present in the communities nor by the familial identity of the most abundant taxon. Large-scale comparisons of the timing and geographical components of these trends are restricted to the patterns recognized in Laurentian North American studies. Results from the Cordillera Oriental mirror those of Laurentia regarding the rise in both metrics in deep marine settings. Nevertheless, the timing of this increase in richness and evenness is delayed in the Cordillera Oriental, supporting the idea that palaeogeographical regions differed in the nature and timing of ecological changes. Finally, the rise in trilobite alpha-diversity through the Late Cambrian - Early Ordovician of the Cordillera Oriental supports the idea that trilobite alpha-diversity did not decline worldwide, suggesting that the relative decline in trilobite alpha-diversity is most probably caused by the dilution effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tropical Andes are a hotspot of biodiversity, but detailed altitudinal and latitudinal distribution patterns of species are poorly understood. We compare the distribution and diversity patterns of four Andean plant groups on the basis of georeferenced specimen data: the genus Nasa (Loasaceae), the two South American sections of Ribes (sect. Parilla and sect. Andina, Grossulariaceae), and the American clade of Urtica (Urticaceae). There is a clear diversity peak between 3-8- S (Amotape-Huancabamba Zone, AHZ), with most narrowly endemic species found there across the groups studied. Latitudinal ranges are generally larger towards the margins of overall range of the group. In the tropical Andes species number and number of endemic species peak at elevations of 2,500-3,500 m, with high elevation species not notably different in latitudinal range. The ecological niches of the tropical groups studied are relatively similar in temperature and temperature seasonality, but do differ in moisture seasonality. This is mirrored in a particular diversity of growth form (as proxy for ecological niche) in the AHZ. Small scale climatic differences apparently contribute to spatial habitat heterogeneity, leading to increased diversity. Altitudinal diversity patterns correspond well with the altitudinal distribution of slope inclination, indicating that the likelihood and frequency of landslides translates into temporal habitat heterogeneity: since most of the taxa studied are from disturbed and secondary vegetation, the frequency of landslides may be causally connected to diversification. Overall, spatiotemporal habitat heterogeneity appears to be directly and positively correlated to diversity and endemicity. Conversely, uplift history is not reflected in the pattern here retrieved, since the AHZ is the area of the most recent Andean uplift. Similarly, a barrier effect of the low-lying Huancabamba depression is not at all visible in our data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Payún Matrú Volcanic Field (Pleistocene–Holocene) is located in the Andean back-arc of the Southern Volcanic Zone, western Argentina, and is contemporaneous with the Andean volcanic arc at the same latitude. It includes two polygenetic, mostly trachytic volcanoes: Payún Matrú (with a summit caldera 8 km wide) and Payún Liso (a smaller stratovolcano). The volcanic field includes about 200 scoria cones and alkali basaltic and trachybasaltic lava flows, forming two basaltic fields around Payún Matrú. New 40Ar–39Ar ages extend the activity of Payún Matrú up to 700 ka. The major and trace element and Sr–Nd isotopic compositions of the basaltic lavas and Payún Matrú rocks indicate that the trachytes of Payún Matrú are the result of fractional crystallization of basaltic parent magmas without significant upper crustal contamination, and that the basalts have a geochemical similarity to ocean island basalt (La/Nb = 0·8–1·5, La/Ba = 0·05–0·08). The Sr–Nd isotopic compositions of the basaltic to trachytic rocks range between 0·703813 and 0·703841 (87Sr/86Sr) and 0·512743 and 0·512834 (143Nd/144Nd). Mass-balance and Rayleigh fractionation models support the proposed origin of the trachytes, and an assimilation–fractional crystallization model indicates a low degree of upper crustal contamination in the youngest trachytes. Magnesium numbers (45–55) and contents of Ni (<20–90 ppm) and Cr (30–180 ppm) in the lavas in the basaltic fields indicate that these are not primary magmas. The data also suggest that the basaltic lavas originated in the asthenospheric mantle, probably within the spinel stability field and beneath an attenuated continental lithosphere in the back-arc area. The lack of a slab-fluid signature in the Payún Matrú Volcanic Field rocks, along with unpublished and published geophysical results (mantle tomography and electrical conductivity anomalies) suggest that magmas were generated by decompression-induced melting of upwelling mantle. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Discussions of Andean economy have traditionally emphasized the role of redistribution and other noncommercial forms of interaction in Inka society. The discussion presented here suggests that the model of centralized, noncommercial distribution does not accurately reflect the variation of economic structures present across the Inka empire or the diversity of economic practices in pre-Inka periods. Forms of reciprocal commercial exchange and even marketplaces were likely found throughout the Andes at different points in time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Andean region of South America, understanding communities' water perceptions is particularly important for water management as many rural communities must decide by themselves if and how they will protect their micro-watersheds and distribute their water. In this study we examine how Water User Associations in the Eastern Andes of Colombia perceive water scarcity and the relationship between this perception and observed climate, land use, and demographic changes. Results demonstrate a complex relationship between perceptions and observed changes. On the one hand, observed changes in land cover match perceptions of deforestation as the primary cause of increasing water scarcity. On the other hand, perceptions of climate driven changes in water availability are not reflected in observed precipitation data. Furthermore, water scarcity was perceived in regions where seasonal rainfall variability is higher but not in regions where annual rainfall is lower. We discuss how these results contribute to our understanding of adaptation to climate change and the implications of possible mismatches between environmental changes and local perceptions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapid 21st-century climate change may lead to large population decreases and extinction in tropical montane cloud forest species in the Andes. While prior research has focused on species migrations per se, ecotones may respond to different environmental factors than species. Even if species can migrate in response to climate change, if ecotones do not they can function as hard barriers to species migrations, making ecotone migrations central to understanding species persistence under scenarios of climate change. We examined a 42-year span of aerial photographs and high resolution satellite imagery to calculate migration rates of timberline–the grassland-forest ecotone–inside and outside of protected areas in the high Peruvian Andes. We found that timberline in protected areas was more likely to migrate upward in elevation than in areas with frequent cattle grazing and fire. However, rates in both protected (0.24 m yr−1) and unprotected (0.05 m yr−1) areas are only 0.5–2.3% of the rates needed to stay in equilibrium with projected climate by 2100. These ecotone migration rates are 12.5 to 110 times slower than the observed species migration rates within the same forest, suggesting a barrier to migration for mid- and high-elevation species. We anticipate that the ecotone will be a hard barrier to migration under future climate change, leading to drastic population and biodiversity losses in the region unless intensive management steps are taken. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examination of three frozen bodies, a 13-y-old girl and a girl and boy aged 4 to 5 y, separately entombed near the Andean summit of Volcán Llullaillaco, Argentina, sheds new light on human sacrifice as a central part of the Imperial Inca capacocha rite, described by chroniclers writing after the Spanish conquest. The high-resolution diachronic data presented here, obtained directly from scalp hair, implies escalating coca and alcohol ingestion in the lead-up to death. These data, combined with archaeological and radiological evidence, deepen our understanding of the circumstances and context of final placement on the mountain top. We argue that the individuals were treated differently according to their age, status, and ritual role. Finally, we relate our findings to questions of consent, coercion, and/or compliance, and the controversial issues of ideological justification and strategies of social control and political legitimation pursued by the expansionist Inca state before European contact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental trends and ecosystems' ranges of variability are little known in tropical very high elevation Andean ecosystems (above 4400 m a.s.l.). We combined satellite image analyses and dendrochronological methods with instrumental records at lower elevation to assess changes in lake size and indices of plant productivity of subtropical high-elevation ecosystems in northern Argentina and southern BoLivia. Between 1985 and 2009, interannual lake fluctuations assessed with Landsat images were positively correlated with interan-nual variations in regional precipitation and de Martonne's aridity index, showing a decreasing trend in moisture availability during the period. Changes in lake size were positively correlated with radial growth of Polylepis tarapacana, and with MODIS-derived phenological parameters of enhanced vegetation index (EVI; an index of vegetation "greenness") between 2001 and 2010. This indicates that water balance has a significant effect on ecosystem functioning, which is related to regional scale atmospheric circulation. A long-term tree ring chronology (starting in 1750) showed that tree growth during recent decades was lower than the last 180 years, and were comparable to growth patterns that occurred between 1775 and 1825. These results suggest that if recent climatic trends continue, long-term ranges of variability in ecosystem functioning could be exceeded. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the reception of the early modern hospital among the indigenous people of the Andes under Spanish colonial rule. During the period covered by this study (sixteenth to mid-eighteenth centuries), the hospital was conceived primarily as a manifestation of the sovereign’s paternalistic concern for his subjects’ spiritual well being. Hospitals in the Spanish American colonies were organised along racial lines, and those catering to Indians were meant to complement the missionary endeavour. Besides establishing hospitals in the main urban centres, Spanish colonial legislation instituted hospitals for Indians in provincial towns and in small rural jurisdictions throughout the Peruvian viceroyalty. Indian hospitals often met with the suspicion and even hostility of their supposed beneficiaries, especially indigenous rulers. By conceptualising the Indian hospital as a tool of colonial government, this article investigates the reasons behind its negative reception, the work of adaptation that allowed a few of them to thrive, and the eventual failure of most of these institutions. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Central Chile is an economically important region for which water supply is dependent on snow- and ice melt. Nevertheless, the relative contribution of water supplied by each of those two sources remains largely unknown. This study represents the first attempt to estimate the region's water balance using stable isotopes of water in streamflow and its sources. Isotopic ratios of both H and O were monitored during one year in a high-altitude basin with a moderate glacier cover (11.5 %). We found that the steep altitude gradient of the studied catchment caused a corresponding gradient in snowpack isotopic composition and that this spatial variation had a profound effect on the temporal evolution of streamflow isotopic composition during snowmelt. Glacier melt and snowmelt contributions to streamflow in the studied basin were determined using a quantitative analysis of the isotopic composition of streamflow and its sources, resulting in a glacier melt contribution of 50-90% for the unusually dry melt year of 2011/2012. This suggests that in (La Niña) years with little precipitation, glacier melt is an important water source for central Chile. Predicted decreases in glacier melt due to global warming may therefore have a negative long-term impact on water availability in the Central Andes. The pronounced seasonal pattern in streamflow isotope composition and its close relation to the variability in snow cover and discharge presents a potentially powerful tool to relate discharge variability in mountainous, melt-dominated catchments with related factors such as contributions of sources to streamflow and snowmelt transit times. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Currently, there is a paucity of data regarding human adenovirus (HAdv) circulation in Andean regions of South America. To address this shortcoming, we report the clinical, phylogenetic, and epidemiologic characteristics of HAdv respiratory tract infection from a large sentinel surveillance study conducted among adults and children in Peru. Methods/Principal Findings: Oropharyngeal swabs were collected from participants visiting any of 38 participating health centers, and viral pathogens were identified by immunofluorescence assay in cell culture. In addition, molecular characterization was performed on 226 randomly selected HAdv samples. Between 2000 and 2010, a total of 26,375 participants with influenza-like illness (ILI) or severe acute respiratory infection (SARI) were enrolled in the study. HAdv infection was identified in 2.5% of cases and represented 6.2% of all viral pathogens. Co-infection with a heterologous virus was found in 15.5% of HAdv cases. HAdv infection was largely confined to children under the age of 15, representing 88.6% of HAdv cases identified. No clinical characteristics were found to significantly distinguish HAdv infection from other respiratory viruses. Geographically, HAdv infections were more common in sites from the arid coastal regions than in the jungle or highland regions. Co-circulation of subgroups B and C was observed each year between 2006 and 2010, but no clear seasonal patterns of transmission were detected. Conclusions/Significance: HAdv accounted for a significant fraction of those presenting with ILI and SARI in Peru and tended to affect the younger population disproportionately. Longitudinal studies will help better characterize the clinical course of patients with HAdv in Peru, as well as determine the role of co-infections in the evolution of illness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]