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Ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is one of the major causes of acute kidney injury (AKI) and evidence supporting the involvement of both innate and adaptive immunity in renal IRI has accumulated in recent years. In addition to leukocytes, kidney endothelial cells promote inflammation after IRI by increasing adhesion molecule expression and vascular permeability. Kidney tubular epithelial cells increase complement binding and upregulate toll-like receptors, both of which lead to cytokine/chemokine production in IRI. Activation of kidney resident dendritic cells, interferon-γ-producing neutrophils, infiltrating macrophages, CD4+ T cells, B cells and invariant natural killer T cells are all implicated in the pathogenesis of AKI. The complex interplay between innate and adaptive immunity in renal IRI is still not completely understood, but major advances have been made. This review summarizes these recent advances to further our understanding of the immune mechanisms of acute kidney injury. Copyright © 2008 S. Karger AG, Basel [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mechanisms involved in renal ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) are complex and appear to involve the early participation of bone marrow-derived cells. T lymphocytes participate in the pathogenesis of IRI. Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) induces peripheral T cell depletion. Therefore, we hypothesized that S1P1 receptor activation protects kidney from IRI. FTY-720, a non-receptor-selective sphingosine analog, was given intraperitoneally to C57BL/6 mice, and animals were subjected to ischemia for 32 min followed by reperfusion for 24 h. Plasma creatinine, blood count, myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, and renal histology were determined. IRI led to a marked increase in plasma creatinine, MPO activity, leukocyte infiltration, and vascular permeability. FTY-720 significantly decreased plasma creatinine in a dose-response manner with a maximal reduction of ∼73 and ∼69% with doses of 240 and 48 μg/kg, respectively. MPO, leukocyte infiltration, vascular permeability, and peripheral blood lymphocyte counts were markedly decreased with FTY-720 treatment. The protective effect of FTY-720 was reversed with VPC-44116, a selective S1P1 receptor antagonist. Furthermore, SEW-2871, a selective S1P1 agonist, significantly decreased plasma creatinine in a dose-response manner with a maximal reduction of ∼70% with a dose of 10 mg/kg. Analysis of kidneys by light microscopy revealed minimal histological signs of ischemic injury with FTY-720 or SEW-2871 treatment compared with the vehicle group. Using RT-PCR, we found a time-dependent increase in the S1P1 mRNA expression following IRI that begins after 2 h with the maximum expression at ∼4 h. We conclude that the protective effect of FTY-720 is due primarily to activation of S1P1 receptors. The mechanism of protection is not known but may be related to peripheral lymphocyte depletion or direct effects on kidney cells expressing S1P1 receptor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of monocytes/macrophages in the pathogenesis of ischemia-reperfusion injury ORB is unknown. We sought to determine whether activation of macrophage adenosine 2A (A2A) receptors (A2ARs) mediates tissue protection We subjected C57B1/6 mice infused with clodronate [dichloromethylene bisphosphonate (Cl2MBP)] to IRI (32 min of ischemia followed by 24 h of reperfusion) to deplete them of macrophages. IRI induced an elevation of plasma creatinine that was reduced with Cl2MBP (26% of control). Adoptive transfer of murine RAW 264.7 cells reconstituted injury, an effect blocked significantly by A2A agonists (27% of plasma creatinine from mice reconstituted with macrophages). Macrophages subjected to A2A knockout by small interfering RNA were adoptively transferred to macrophage-depleted mice and reconstituted injury (110% of control mice); however, the increase in plasma creatinine was blocked by A2A agonists (20% of vehicle treatment). Finally, the A2A agonist effect on IRI was blocked in macrophage-depleted A2A-knockout mice reconstituted with wild-type RAW 264.7 cells. RNase protection assays 24 h after IRI demonstrated that macrophages are required for IL-6 and TGF-β mRNA induction. However, A2A agonist-mediated tissue protection is independent of IL-6 and TGF-β mRNA. We conclude that the full extent of IRI requires macrophages and that A2A agonist-mediated tissue protection is independent of activation of macrophage A2ARs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Enhanced protection from renal ischemia: Reperfusion injury with A2A -adenosine receptor activation and PDE 4 inhibition. Background. We previously demonstrated in rats and mice that agonists of A2A -adenosine receptors (A2A -ARs) reduce renal injury following ischemia-reperfusion. We now extend these studies and examine the effects of ATL-146e (formerly DWH-146e), an A2A -AR agonist, and rolipram, a type IV phosphodiesterase (PDE 4) inhibitor, on murine renal injury following ischemia-reperfusion. Methods. C57BL/6 mice were treated with rolipram, ATL-146e, or both compounds combined and were subjected to renal ischemia for 32 minutes and reperfusion for 24 to 48 hours. In vitro studies were performed on suspended and adhering human neutrophils. Results. Continuous delivery of rolipram or ATL-146e during reperfusion reduced renal injury in a dose-dependent manner. Maximal protection was observed when ATL-146e was infused for six hours during reperfusion. Elevated plasma creatinine and myeloperoxidase activity produced by ischemia-reperfusion were reduced by rolipram (0.1 ng/kg/min) and ATL-146e (10 ng/kg/min) by up to approximately 60% and 70%, respectively. Co-infusion of both compounds produced a maximum reduction of plasma creatinine of approximately 90% and myeloperoxidase activity. In vitro studies on suspended and adhering human neutrophils demonstrated that selective stimulation of A2A -ARs by ATL-146e increased cAMP accumulation, reduced oxidative activity of activated neutrophils, and decreased activated neutrophil adherence. These responses were potentiated by rolipram. Conclusions. We conclude that the combined infusion of ATL-146e and rolipram leads to enhanced renal tissue protection from ischemia-reperfusion by mechanisms that may include reduced neutrophil adherence/recruitment and release of reactive oxygen species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]