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Objectives: Kratom leaf products are increasingly consumed in the United States, with many consumers reporting they experience beneficial effects from kratom use. However, there is a growing concern for kratom's potential to result in dependence when used regularly. As such, we sought to assess, using Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , (DSM-5) , diagnostic criteria for substance use disorder, the prevalence of "kratom use disorder" (KUD) among kratom consumers. Methods: Our cross-sectional study used an online, anonymous survey between February and May 2023. Through nonprobability sampling, we recruited people older than 18 years who currently consume kratom. Participants were asked about their kratom consumption patterns, adverse effects perceived to stem from kratom consumption, comorbid diagnoses, and components for a DSM-5 , substance use disorder, adapted for kratom. Results: Among the total sample (N = 2061), KUD criteria were met by 25.5% of participants (n = 525); the most commonly reported symptoms were tolerance (n = 427, 81.3%) and withdrawal (n = 357, 68.0%). After adjusting for age, gender, daily frequency of kratom consumption, and history of either a substance use disorder or a mental health condition, those with a concurrent diagnosis of another substance use disorder had 2.83 times higher odds of meeting KUD criteria (95% CI, 2.19–3.67) compared with those without one. Conclusions: In this large cross-sectional study, most participants who met the criteria for a KUD diagnosis were categorized as having a mild or moderate KUD. Individual characteristics associated with KUD were related to being male, young, consuming kratom frequently, and having psychiatric and substance use disorder comorbidities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) has generated substantial clinical and scientific interest as a complex natural product. Its predominant alkaloid mitragynine and several stereoisomers have been studied for activity in opioid, adrenergic, and serotonin receptors. While awaiting clinical trial results, the pre-clinical evidence suggests a range of potential therapeutic applications for kratom with careful consideration of potential adverse effects. The focus of this review is on the pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and potential drug–drug interactions of kratom and its individual alkaloids. A discussion on the clinical pharmacology and toxicology of kratom is followed by a summary of user surveys and the evolving concepts of tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal associated with kratom use disorder. With the increasing use of kratom in clinical practice, clinicians should be aware of the potential benefits and adverse effects associated with kratom. While many patients may benefit from kratom use with few or no reported adverse effects, escalating dose and increased use frequency raise the risk for toxic events in the setting of polysubstance use or development of a use disorder. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Co-use of non-medical opioids (NMO) and methamphetamine is increasing. So too is the use of the psychoactive botanical "kratom," including among people with NMO and methamphetamine use histories. We assessed characteristics associated with respondent groups who reported lifetime methamphetamine and/or kratom use within a nationally representative US sample using 2019 National Survey on Drug Use and Health data from respondents reporting lifetime NMO use (diverted prescription opioids, heroin). Weighted prevalence estimates for demographic, mental health, and substance use outcomes were determined. Logistic regression examined associations between group membership and outcomes. Among this sample of respondents with lifetime NMO use, 67.6% (95% CI = 65.6–69.4%) reported only NMO use; 4.6% (3.9–5.4%) reported NMO+Kratom; 24.7% (22.7–26.7%) reported NMO+Methamphetamine; and 3.2% (2.5–3.9%) reported NMO+Methamphetamine+Kratom. Compared to those in the NMO-only group, the NMO+Kratom group was more likely to report past-year serious mental illness (SMI; OR = 2.27), suicidality (OR = 1.89), and past-month psychological distress (OR = 1.88). The NMO+Methamphetamine+Kratom group was more likely to report past-year SMI (OR = 2.65), past-month psychological distress (OR = 2.06), and unmet mental health needs (OR = 2.03); increased odds for drug injection, opioid withdrawal, and perceived treatment need also emerged. Risk factors were observed for all groups but were greatest among those reporting use of all three substances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background:Mitragyna speciosa (kratom) is increasingly used in the United States for its pharmacological effects. Kratom's relative novelty makes for a dynamic situation, such that use motivations are not firmly established and may be changing. Investigators and clinicians require frequent updates on kratom trends. Objectives: To assess the current state of kratom-use initiation, sourcing, motivations, preference, conceptualizations, and perceived stigma, using survey responses from current and former users. Methods: Between April-May 2021 we recontacted 289 respondents who reported lifetime kratom use (on an unrelated survey) to answer kratom-specific questions. Results: The sample (N=129) was majority female (51.9%) and white (71.9%). Most (69.0%) reported first trying kratom after 2015. Mean age of use initiation (29.9 years) was older than for other substances, including opioids. Kratom ranked as a preferred substance by 48.5%. The strongest drug association with past-year kratom use was vaped nicotine (OR=3.31,95% CI 1.23-8.88). Use was less likely among those prescribed buprenorphine in the past year (OR=0.03, CI 0.01-0.28). Past-month cannabis use (OR=4.18,CI 1.80-9.72) had the strongest association with past-month kratom use. Over 40 use motivations were endorsed, many (but not all) supporting the "self-treatment" narrative of kratom use, including use as an opioid, alcohol, or stimulant substitute. Treatment shortfalls were associated with decisions to try kratom. Conclusions: Kratom use motivations are diversifying, with multiple factors driving use. As sales continue to increase, the public-health, clinical, and policy responses to kratom should be grounded in rigorous bench-to-bedside scientific research. Comprehensive study of kratom is currently lacking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Since 2007, kratom use in the United States has increased, centered around nonmedical self-treatment of pain, psychiatric, and substance use disorder symptoms. Reports of kratom withdrawal have emerged amidst description of therapeutic effects, yet we know little about disordered use. Our objective was to assess Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-5 substance use disorder for kratom ("kratom use disorder," KUD) and examine kratom withdrawal symptoms among those who ever used regularly. We also sought to identify clinical characteristics of respondents who qualified for current, remitted, or never KUD. Methods: Between April and May 2021, we re-recruited online respondents who reported lifetime kratom use on an unrelated survey into our cross-sectional kratom survey study, permitting a diverse sample of current and former kratom-using persons. Results: A total of 129/289 (44.6%) evaluable surveys were obtained. Over half (52.7%) of respondents never met KUD diagnostic criteria; 17.8% were assessed remitted, and 29.5% met current (past-year) KUD threshold. For past-year KUD, severity was: 14.0% mild, 7.0% moderate, and 8.5% severe. Pain, psychiatric symptoms, and polydrug use were found across all groups. KUD symptoms reflected increased use, tolerance, withdrawal, unsuccessful quit attempts, and craving; 9.3% reported decreases in important social, occupational, or recreational activities because of use. Withdrawal symptoms were moderate and included gastrointestinal upset, restlessness, anxiety, irritability, fatigue/low energy, and craving. Conclusions: As assessed here, tolerance and withdrawal are primary KUD features rather than psychosocial impairments. As kratomis often used among persons with a myriad of health conditions, clinicians should be aware of and assess for kratom use and withdrawal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Kratom is taken to self-treat pain and symptoms of psychiatric disorders, including substance-use disorders (SUDs) and opioid withdrawal. Before COVID-19, kratom use was increasing in the US, however, there are few published data on whether that trend continued during the COVID-19 pandemic, which could have affected kratom use in multiple ways. Aim: To examine COVID-19-related changes in kratom use and how these changes were experienced, relative to changes in other commonly used substances. Methods: Using Amazon Mechanical Turk, 2615 evaluable surveys were completed between September 2020 and March 2021. Responses from past-month and past-year kratom-using adults (N = 174) indicating changes for the better or worse were examined using generalized linear mixed effects models, and relevant open-text responses (n = 85) were thematically coded. Results: For kratom 33% (n = 58) reported a Covid-related increase and 24% (n = 42) reported a Covid-related decrease. Controlling for changes in amount used, alcohol (OR = 5.02), tobacco (OR = 4.72), and nonmedical opioid use (OR = 3.42) were all more likely to have changed for the worse, compared with kratom use. Relative to decreases in kratom use, decreases in alcohol (OR = 3.21) and tobacco (OR = 6.18) use were more likely to be changes for the better. Cannabis use was the only substance to display a probability lower than 50% of being a decrease for the better, and of the increases, cannabis use displayed the highest probability of being for the better. Conclusions: Increases in kratom and cannabis use were less likely than alcohol and tobacco to be reported as changes for the worse, and decreases in kratom and cannabis use were more likely than alcohol and tobacco to be reported as changes for the better. These findings indicate that people differently conceptualize their relationships with kratom and cannabis, compared to their relationships with alcohol and tobacco. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) use outside of Southeast Asia has increased over the past decade. Objectives: This investigation clarifies kratom's role in perceived well-being, overall health, and temporal correlation with drug use to understand kratom's role in the self-treatment of substance use disorders (SUDs). Methods: Between July 2019 and July 2020 an anonymous, cross-sectional, online survey was taken by 7,381 people who use kratom (PWUK) recruited through social media and other online resources. This included an assessment of (a) the relationship between self-reported overall health, concomitant use of drugs of misuse, and demographics; (b) the perceived effectiveness of kratom in self-treating diagnosed health conditions or symptoms; (c) the profile of PWUK primarily for drug dependence, pain, and mood or mental health conditions based on demographics. Results: A total of 5,152 valid responses (45.9% females/53.7% males) were collected. Kratom was primarily used for self-treating pain (73.0%) and improving emotional or mental health conditions (42.2%) without clinical supervision. Those with a SUD (synthetic opioids, methadone, benzodiazepines, or heroin) used kratom after discontinuing illicit or other drugs (94.8%). The primary substances taken before or concomitantly with kratom were cannabis, cannabidiol, benzodiazepines, or kava. PWUKs report a dose-dependent benefit for alleviating pain and relieving negative moods. Adverse effects were primarily gastrointestinal, typically at high (>5 g/dose) and frequent (>22 doses/week) dosing. Conclusions: Kratom was primarily used as a harm-reduction agent for SUDs and self-treatment of chronic conditions. Healthcare professionals need better information about kratom, its potential adverse effects, and clinically significant drug interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is limited understanding regarding kratom use among US adults. Although motivations for use are increasingly understood, typical kratom doses, threshold of (low and high) doses for perceived effectiveness, and effects produced during cessation are not well documented. We aimed to extend prior survey work by recruiting adults with current and past kratom exposure. Our goal was to better understand kratom dosing, changes in routines, and perception of effects, including time to onset, duration, and variability of beneficial and adverse outcomes from use and cessation. Among respondents who reported experiencing acute kratom effects, we also sought to determine if effects were perceived as helpful or unhelpful in meeting daily obligations. Finally, we attempted to detect any signal of a relationship between the amount of kratom consumed weekly and weeks of regular use with ratings of beneficial effects from use and ratings of adverse effects from cessation. We conducted an online survey between April-May 2021 by re-recruiting participants from a separate study who reported lifetime kratom use. A total of 129 evaluable surveys were collected. Most (59.7%) had used kratom >100 times and reported currently or having previously used kratom >4 times per week (62 weeks on average). Under half (41.9%) reported that they considered themselves to be a current "regular kratom user." A majority (79.8%) reported experiencing acute effects from their typical kratom dose and that onset of effects began in minutes but dissipated within hours. Over a quarter reported that they had increased their kratom dose since use initiation, whereas 18.6% had decreased. Greater severity of unwanted effects from ≥1 day of kratom cessation was predicted by more weeks of regular kratom use (β = 6.74, p = 0.02). Acute kratom effects were largely reported as compatible with, and sometimes helpful in, meeting daily obligations. In the absence of human laboratory studies, survey methods must be refined to more precisely assess dose-effect relationships. These can help inform the development of controlled observational and experimental studies needed to advance the public health understanding of kratom product use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Kratom products available in the United States are becoming increasingly diverse both in terms of content and in terms of how they are marketed. Prior survey research indicates that kratom has been primarily used in the US to self-treat anxiety, depression, pain, fatigue, and substance use disorder (SUD) symptoms. Kratom is also well-known for its use as a short- or long-term full opioid agonist substitute. Therefore, use may be greater in regions particularly impacted by addiction to prescription opioids. Use may also be greater in demographic groups targeted by media outlets (such as specific podcasts) in which kratom is touted. Here, we aimed to determine whether lifetime and past-year kratom use were associated with region of residence and with being young, White, post-secondary educated, and employed. To strengthen confidence in our findings, we analyzed data from two sources: our own crowdsourced online convenience sample and the 2019 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH). In our sample (N = 2,615), 11.1% reported lifetime and 6.7% reported past-year kratom use, and the odds of kratom use were higher among people who were White, younger, at least high school educated, employed, and above the poverty line, as well as those reporting nonmedical opioid use, past-year SUD, or lifetime SUD treatment; residence was not a significant predictor. In NSDUH data, suburban residence and other demographic factors, concordant with those from the crowdsourced sample, were associated with kratom use. Taken together, the findings support a general "White middle-class suburban" profile of the modal kratom user, but more research is needed to understand it. In the interim, focus should be on our finding that lifetime nonmedical opioid use was associated with an up to five times greater likelihood of past-year kratom use, suggesting that drug-use history may presently be the strongest predictor of kratom use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To determine whether diagnosed pre-existing health conditions correlate with Kratom demographics and use patterns. Methods: A cross-sectional, anonymous US national online survey was conducted among 8049 Kratom users in October, 2016 to obtain demographic, health, and Kratom use pattern information. Results: People who use Kratom to mitigate illicit drug dependence self-reported less pain and better overall health than individuals who used Kratom for acute/chronic pain. Self-reported improvements in pre-existing mental health symptoms (attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder/attention deficit disorder, anxiety, bipolar disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and depression) attributed to Kratom use were greater than those related to somatic symptoms (back pain, rheumatoid arthritis, acute pain, chronic pain, fibromyalgia). Demographic variables, including female sex, older age, employment status, and insurance coverage correlated with increased likelihood of Kratom use. Conclusions: Kratom use may serve as a self-treatment strategy for a diverse population of patients with pre-existing health diagnoses. Healthcare providers need to be engaging with patients to address safety concerns and potential limitations of its use in clinical practice for specific health conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Asia, Mitragyna speciosa (e.g., "kratom") has been used to mitigate alcohol and drug dependence. Some preliminary findings suggest kratom's potential use as an informal harm-reduction method in the United States, such as an opioid substitute or as a means of lessening opioid withdrawal symptoms. To determine correlates of past-year kratom use among a sample of polysubstance users enrolled in residential recovery programs in Kentucky, an anonymous survey was completed by clients in April 2017. Logistic regression was used to identify significant associations with past-year kratom use. Of the final sample (N = 478), 10.4% reported past-year kratom use. Past-year heroin use, but not past-year prescription opioid (e.g., oxycodone, hydrocodone) use, was significantly associated with kratom use, such that individuals who reported past-year heroin use were 2.5 times more likely to also report past-year kratom use. Non-prescribed buprenorphine (i.e., Suboxone) use partially mediated the relationship between past-year heroin and kratom use by explaining 36% of the association between the two drugs. Though amphetamines were highly preferred, past-year use was negatively correlated with past-year kratom use. Rates of past-year kratom use were lower than rates of alcohol and illicit drug use. Kratom was not preferred over heroin or prescription opioids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Kratom use in the West has increased recently, yet the prevalence and motives for use among individuals with a history of substance use disorder (SUD) have not been fully examined. Kratom has been documented as a means of treating chronic pain, mitigating drug dependence, and easing withdrawal symptoms, yet it is unclear if substance users are utilizing kratom as a self-medication. Abuse liability, side effects, and overall appeal of kratom remain uncertain.Methods: In April 2017, an anonymous survey regarding kratom use and motivations was completed by clients enrolled in a 12-Step-oriented residential program. 500 respondents with a self-reported history of SUD completed the survey.Results: 20.8% of respondents endorsed lifetime kratom use and 10.2% reported past-12-month use. Kratom-users were younger (=32.1 vs. 35.9, p<0.001) and were more versatile substance users. A majority (68.9%) of kratom-users reported having used the drug as a means of reducing or abstaining from non-prescription opioids (NPO) and/or heroin, and 64.1% reported using kratom as a substitute for NPO/heroin. 18.4% of kratom-users reported using the drug due to a disability or chronic pain. One-third of kratom-users stated that kratom was a helpful substance and that they would try it again. However, kratom was not preferred and was indicated as having less appeal than NPO, heroin, amphetamines, and Suboxone.Conclusions: Among substance users, kratom use may be initiated for a variety of reasons, including as a novel form of harm-reduction or drug substitution, particularly in the context of dependence and withdrawal from other substances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Keywords: kratom; Mitragyna speciosa; pharmacology; toxicity; epidemiology EN kratom Mitragyna speciosa pharmacology toxicity epidemiology 1 2 2 03/14/22 20220310 NES 220310 Kratom ( I Mitragyna speciosa i Korth.) The survey found that kratom acute effects typically begin within minutes, but last for hours, and that effects were reported as largely compatible with and even helpful in meeting daily roles and obligations. Relatedly, another review, "The Adverse Cardiovascular Effects and Cardiotoxicity of Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth: A Comprehensive Review" (Leong Bin Abdullah and Singh) provides insights into the currently available literature on kratom cardiotoxicity. [Extracted from the article]

Background: Kratom, a Southeast Asian plant with opioid-receptor mediated effects, has emerged as a potential substance of abuse, with limited data on its use and effects. This study characterized kratom user demographics, use patterns, and perceived drug effects.Methods: A cross-sectional, anonymous online survey was conducted between January and December 2017.Results: 2,798 kratom users - mean age 40 (SD = 12); predominantly White (90 %), female (61 %), and located in the US (97 %) - completed the survey. Kratom was primarily taken orally in doses of 1-3 g (49 %), with daily use (59 %) being most common. Kratom was used for pain (91 %), anxiety (67 %), and depression (65 %), with high ratings of effectiveness. 1,144 (41 %) used kratom to stop or reduce prescription or illicit opioid use, citing decreased opioid withdrawal and craving related to kratom use, with 411 reporting >1-year continuous abstinence from opioids attributed to kratom use. Roughly one-third of respondents reported adverse effects of kratom, largely rated as mild in severity and lasting ≤24 h. Seventeen participants (0.6 %) sought treatment for adverse effects. Fifty-six individuals (2 %) met DSM-5 criteria for a past-year moderate or severe kratom-related substance use disorder (SUD). When asked how troubled they felt regarding their kratom use, the mean (SD) rating was 3.2 (9.8) on a scale from 0 to 100.Conclusion: Kratom is used among White, middle-aged Americans for symptoms of pain, anxiety, depression, and opioid withdrawal. Although regular use was typical, kratom-related SUD and serious adverse effects were uncommon. Additional research on kratom epidemiology and pharmacology is imperative in light of the present opioid epidemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]