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The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is a substantial part of the European subsidy policy. However, this policy could not prevent the increasing displacement of small and medium-sized agricultural enterprises so far. The agriculture of the USA has experienced a systemic decline in small and medium-sized enterprises for decades and already negative consequences can be observed from this development. In Europe, the same tendency can be seen. To find a solution for small and medium-size enterprises we present our research that compares the subsidy mechanisms of the EU with that of the USA.The scope of this paper includes the examination of the development of small and medium-sized companies within the conditions of the current CAP and which steps in the development have been taken in the US agriculture. In order to identify which threats exist for the European agriculture, the influence of subsidy payments on the agricultural development is examined and assessed. The analysis reveals that the US agriculture has been dominated by industrialized farms due to the concentration development so far. Small and medium-sized companies hardly play a role in this system, which is geared towards continuously increasing efficiency. Thereby, negative side effects on the environment, climate, fauna, animal welfare and health etc. are accepted. According to the previous concentration process in European agriculture one cannot exclude the possibility that a further development towards a US-like situation in agriculture can be prevented. The results of the comparison indicate the need for changes of the EU policy to avoid a US-like evolution of the European agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to identify the habitat types listed in the Habitats Directive Annex I that require low-intensity agricultural management for their existence. We assessed the link between the Annex I habitat types and agricultural practices in order to identify habitat types that depend on the continuation of agricultural practices or whose existence is prolonged or spatially enlarged via blocking or reducing the secondary succession by agricultural activities. 63 habitat types that depend on or which can profit from agricultural activities-mainly grazing and mowing-were identified. They are classified into 2 groups: (1) habitats fully dependent on the continuation of agricultural management; (2) habitats partly dependent on the continuation of agricultural management. This paper also briefly discusses habitat types for which either doubts remain on their dependence on agricultural management, or the relation to extensive farming practices exists only in part of their area of distribution in Europe or under certain site conditions, respectively. Assessments of the conservation status of habitats of European Importance by 25 EU Member States in 2007 showed that habitats identified by us as depending on agricultural practices had a worse status than non-agricultural habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Romania might receive in future years an important role in ensuring food security of the European Union and of other countries in the region, under the conditions of solving internal problems related to productivity and competitiveness in agriculture. An important role in this context has the innovative method of agricultural development, which promotes a system in which the actors involved interact to generate and use knowledge related to agriculture, in the processes of socio-economic relevance, and in an appropriate institutional framework. A current form of innovation system applied also by agriculture is the networking activity between the actors involved, transposed in emerging clusters (during different projects or occurring spontaneously) and mature clusters. Romanian entrepreneurs followed the good practices met in the field, also in agriculture - especially those from South East Europe, of economic clustering. The paper focused on the most representative results collected during author's projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

EurepGAP is a pioneering field level food safety protocol called ‘good agricultural practices’ currently exercising influence over the global food quality assurance system. Developed by a consortium of major European retailers, this private standard enforces codes of conduct that address issues of health and safety for producers and consumers, as well as working conditions and environmental management on the farmland. Despite various merits and benefits that the standard is premised to offer, the institutional design gives a financial edge to powerful large farms and exporters while diminishing opportunities for smaller growers and exporters to remain in the profitable agricultural export sector of the Global South. This paper explores the institutional origin and evolution of EurepGAP, discusses entry barriers and risks that EurepGAP imposes on the global value chain stakeholders, as well as the ethical implications from broader theoretical perspectives. Subsequently, it examines the evolving nature of a new trend in the fresh fruit and vegetable sector, i.e., the rise of public GAP standards. Promoted by some governments in the Global South, these GAP standards emphasize support for horizontal partnerships among value chain stakeholders, farmer participation, and less capital-intensive agricultural innovations. The paper argues that, within certain limitations, these GAP standards have the potential to be the major alternative GAP approach by encouraging a much broader inclusion of small-scale producers towards the attainment of various social, economic, and environmental benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the steadily evolving concept of sustainability and new challenges for European agriculture, the sustainability concept has not been fully operationalized in practice, particularly not in the local level. This paper aims to make the concept of sustainable development operational through the elaboration of the Regional Agriculture Sustainability Index (RASI). Our research hypothesis is that sustainability aspects are not equally represented in regional agricultural development. The research confirmed large regional differences in achieving sustainability in agriculture and, additionally, particularly large differences between the various aspects of sustainability. In general, Slovenian regions show high environmental sustainability, while there was an obvious gap in the economic and social area in seven or five regions, respectively. We assume that common agricultural policy (CAP) requirements with their emphasized environmental component significantly contribute to the picture of unbalanced agricultural sustainability in Slovenian regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of paper is to verify validity of some hypotheses which explain income disparity of agriculture under conditions of the current European agricultural model, and further to suggest a possible approach to categorization of this phenomenon. It is not dealt with all hypotheses which were expressed in connection with the income disparity, but also with those oriented to costs. Demand-oriented hypotheses will be a subject of further research. On base of the reached grade of knowledge, the present validity of hypotheses explaining farmers' income disparity by the help of specialities of agricultural production, alternative costs, and introduction of technical progress (Theory of treadmill) is analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There have been few comprehensive assessments of what research has learned about the development of real alternatives in rural Europe, major agents in sustaining rural economies and cultures, and the socio-environmental role of agriculture. My aim in this paper is to examine the emerging rural development paradigm, organizational systems of autonomous and endogenous rural development, and new opportunities and threats to rural social structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The role that the agricultural sector plays in rural areas has considerably changed in the last five decades, and is reflected in a major shift towards multi-dimensional, multi-sectoral land use. Existing European rural typologies are mostly one-dimensional, based on a rather coarse administrative scale data and are unable to define adequately the diversity of the regions involved. The rural typology presented in this paper has been produced as a response to a new policy need for typologies addressing the diversity in regional rurality. This paper describes the method developed and explores the relevance of the results for future rural policies. This new rural typology incorporates two dimensions identified by statistical screening of a range of geographical and socioeconomic data related to the territorial variation of European rural land. The use of high-resolution raster data at 1km2 resolution provides large flexibility for the construction of individual classifications, with a variable number of classes for a variety of objectives. In the example presented, nine divisions were produced, which were subsequently summarised into three rural classes termed Peri-urban, Rural and Deep Rural. The rural typology enables the consistent identification of comparable rural areas and intergradations with urban land in the European territory, and describes the degree of generalisation that is possible. In addition, it provides a spatially explicit framework for scientific analysis and communication to both European policy makers and local stakeholders. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In the past, in Portugal, as in other European countries, Rural Extension work was promoted by the Ministries of Agriculture, and focused on the farming community. Today, this work is performed by a constellation of organizations, mostly private or nonprofit ones. Besides, in the early 90's, the EU promoted LEADER Initiative. Presently there are 53 LEADER regions established in Portugal each one being managed by a Local Development Association (LDA) and animated by a Local Action Group (LAG). These Associations are local networks or partnerships, involving different actors and sectors. Their activities aim at "animating" rural territories, diversifying the economy and promoting revitalization initiatives. They represent one of the new faces of Rural Extension work in Europe, more decentralized, with a wider focus, base on multidisciplinary teams. In this paper we present the results of a study of 17 Portuguese LDAs. We gathered information produced under the Q3 Project on each LDA: Reports of Organizational Assessment; qualitative interviews; and final evaluation surveys completed by consultants, technicians and directors. This information was further complemented through document analysis. The study presents elements about the profile, missions, objective and activities developed by these organizations, and identifies the major organizational problems they face, particularly in respect to its management and sustainability. In general, the diagnosis of the LDAs revealed some major weaknesses, especially: lack or failure in setting a strategy; poor leadership; lack of financial sustainability; gaps in human resources; organizational weaknesses, poor communication and others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rising energy prices for fossil fuels, the unreliable supply of energy imports during recent winters, and European Union (EU) policies have stimulated national awareness and political action on renewable bio-energy among all of the European countries. In discussions on agricultural policy, renewable energy has been advocated as a way to more rural prosperity. In this paper, we assess whether there is any impact on agricultural and rural employment and income as anticipated. Among the new member states (NMS) of the EU, the share of bio-energy is slowly increasing. Yet among the Balkan states and Turkey this process has just started. In both sub-regions an expansion of rape seed cultivation, and to a smaller extent of the production of wood pellets, could be observed. Similarly, the build-up of processing facilities is in its infancy. Up to now, however, its overall impact on agricultural and rural income and employment seems to have been marginal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper detects the importance of the reforming process of European Common Agricultural Policy and tries to identify the opportunities for Romanian agriculture and rural development policy. The new CAP intends to improve the competitiveness of farming sector, the environment and rural landscape, the quality of life in rural areas and the ability of rural community to create new jobs and new opportunities for people. In order to consolidate its policy of rural development, Romania must take advantage of the European technical and financial support, mainly represented by European Agricultural Guarantee Fund and the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A renewal of academic interest in agricultural restructuring in western Europe raises questions about causality, processes and outcomes. In particular, the relationship between deep-set structural tendencies and policy trends and the way these are constituted in relation to, and mediated through, the agency of individual land managers and other actors is emerging as a central research concern of rural social scientists. In this paper we focus on the first part of this equation, arguing that international and European agricultural restructuring needs to be rediscovered as an essentially sociopolitical project, the outcome of a struggle for influence and power between different class fractions of capital during a long and contested transition to a post-Fordist regime of accumulation. Rather than witnessing the shift towards a postproductivist agriculture anticipated by some recent commentators, we argue that the dominant framing is in favour of a neoliberal regime of market productivism, leading to the further integration of large parts of European agriculture into agro-food circuits of capital. While the neoliberal discourse which provides the intellectual justification for this process is heavily contested by advocates of a long standing form of neomercantilism and by a more recently invented discourse of agricultural multifunctionality, the entrenched position of neoliberal ideas and framings within the World Trade Organization (WTO) means that the ideology of the free market is coming to define the terms of international, and thus European, agricultural policy reform. The recent history of reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and wider rural policy reform in the European Union (EU) nevertheless suggests that the European policy stance is one of partial resistance to unfettered liberalization, policy-makers apparently having embarked on an attempt to combine elements of the neoliberal programme with continued commitment to state assistance in various forms. This sets the frame for the regulation of an increasingly bimodal agricultural industry, in which spaces for postproductivism and rural development are being defined and defended in public interest and public good terms but where there are few opportunities to question the enforced segregation and commodification of rural space and environmental provision that this implies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines some recent analyses of alternative agro-food networks (AAFNs) and claims that these innovative modes of food provisioning are emblematic of a new rural development paradigm in Western Europe. A political-economic critique of the territorialised, farm-centric value added strategies underlying these claims suggests that this characterisation is overdrawn and premature. The neglect of the consumption side of the rural development equation also argues for a more modest assessment of AAFNs and their paradigmatic potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Sociologia Ruralis is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Abstract: The direct payment system of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) provides income transfers to European farmers. Recently, several countries including England and Sweden have advocated the elimination of direct payments after 2013. The extent to which an elimination of direct payments would affect the land use dynamics in Europe including impacts on structural change and the environment has not been addressed in the existing literature. In this paper, we combine participatory methods, to analyze regional preferences for functions and effects of agriculture, and farm-level modeling, to assess the impacts of such a policy change on farm structures and land use intensities in four European regions located in Germany, Denmark, Italy and Poland, each with different socio-economic and biophysical characteristics. In each region, the entire farm population consisting of different farm types with different production orientations and land management types was modeled under the presence and absence of direct payments using a combination of agent-based and bio-economic modeling. We found that the initial characteristics of the regions, such as the historical farm structure and regional site conditions, greatly influence the impact of direct support elimination and cause regionally different development trends. The results for the four regions were summarized in four specific storylines that emphasize how much the diversity of European regions matters for future policy decisions. An explicitly regional focus is, therefore, argued to be crucial to complement future policy analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition above the critical load causes eutrophication with adverse impacts on biodiversity. Average Accumulated critical load Exceedance (AAE) is a measure of the amount of critical load exceedance and the area of habitat which is affected, and has been adopted in Europe as a pressure indicator for biodiversity. In Europe, AAE is calculated by the Coordination Centre for Effects (CCE) of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe based on modelled nitrogen deposition and country-level reporting of critical load thresholds and ecosystem area. Due to differences in country-level reporting, AAE values for semi-natural habitats may show large differences across Europe. This paper therefore describes the development of a simpler approach to the modelling of habitat eutrophication. The eutrophication indicator model is applicable to all habitats for which empirical critical loads for nutrient nitrogen have been defined and is easily configured to assess impacts of modelled policies or scenarios on AAE. Outputs from the model showed a high correlation with published AAE data (R 2 =0.80) and replicated broad spatial patterns in AAE, but under-estimated actual values by a factor of 2.5. This variation was traced primarily to the use of habitat-specific nitrogen deposition by the CCE which calculates higher nitrogen deposition to forest areas, but also to differences between countries in the critical load thresholds used and the areas of sensitive ecosystems reported. Sensitivity testing showed that exceedance calculations were particularly sensitive to the critical load threshold used, since nitrogen deposition across Europe lies in the middle of most critical load ranges. The indicator model was used to forecast AAE under two scenarios: socio-economic changes under a business as usual scenario to 2025, and the additional effect of agricultural reform where both direct support to farmers and market support were removed. Ammonia emissions showed a net decrease by 2025, with strong regional differentiation. Emissions increased in former Soviet bloc countries and decreased mainly in south west Europe and Finland. Agricultural reform had little additional impact on ammonia emissions. AAE was forecast to decrease by 49% by 2025, due mainly to reductions in emissions of oxidised N from industry and transport, independent of agricultural reform. However, as oxidised N decreases, the relative contribution of N from agricultural sources will increase, and policy measures which reduce ammonia emissions will have increasing relevance for reducing AAE. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper presents an institutional analysis of agri-environmental governance in Central and Eastern Europe conducted by way of three case studies from Bulgaria, the Czech Republic and Poland. Building upon the theory on natural resource governance as developed by Ostrom and others, the analysis focuses on the linkages between agri-environmental governance and the political system. Its results suggest that the goods supplied by agriculture reflect the combined influence of four factors: excludability and scale as key features of the supplied good, and consolidation and centralisation as factors characterising the political system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After the First World War, agricultural work became a subject of intense interdisciplinary scientific inquiry. The shortage of agricultural labour, the nutritional and agricultural crises and the increasing significance of the movement for the rationalisation of work contributed to the creation of new scientific institutions that focused on the study and improvement of agricultural work. This contribution sketches the emergence and development of the science of agricultural work in Europe from the 1920s to the 1960s and explores the intellectual controversies sparked by the attempts to shape farm work along the model of industrial manufacturing. The frictions and tensions between industrial ideals and agricultural idiosyncrasies not only led to a new scientific treatment of agricultural work, but also created a field of contestation between different conceptual approaches to perceiving, analysing and transforming agricultural work in the age of industrial capitalism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Sociologia Ruralis is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In order to promote China's biogas industry development, this paper comprehensively compared the biogas status and related policies between China and Europe and tried to find the shortage and potential implications. China has access to abundant biomass resources, with considerable biogas potential and an annual theoretical output of 73.6 billion m3. Household-based biogas digesters coexist with medium and large-scale biogas plants (MLBPs) in China. Although the number of MLBPs in China was almost two times higher than Europe, the annul biogas production yield was only half of those in Europe. In China, biogas is mainly used for heating and cooking, and its power generation capacity is far lower than that in Europe. Overall, biogas industry is more commercialized in Europe than China. In terms of biogas related policies, China has an advantage in quantity, but is weak in their implementation. Biogas related policies in China mainly focus on agricultural and rural development, while in Europe, they are aimed at increasing the utilization of renewable energy and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, policies in China are mostly filled with encouragement, lacking detailed subsidy schemes and modes, whereas in European countries are more targeted and scientific. Based on the dissimilarity of current status and the disparity in policies, a series of countermeasures and suggestions for the development of the Chinese biogas industry are presented. • China's biomass sources have lower utilization rate compared to Europe. • Biogas industry in Europe is more industrialized and commercialized than in China. • The related-biogas policy framework of Europe is more mature and perfect. • European biogas policy provide valuable reference for China's biogas development. • China's biogas industry has great potential for development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Historia Agraria is the property of Historia Agraria and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article compares the investment subsidies in agriculture within the EU member states throughout the period of 2004 - 2013 based on the FADN database. Low investment level affects the cost and efficiency of agricultural production and thus the overall competitiveness of agricultural production. European programs providing support for the investments for agriculture aim at improving agricultural competitiveness. Development of subsidies on investment, property and Farm Net Income adjusted to economic size of enterprise by correlation analysis is compared in every EU country. Using cluster analysis, the member states were divided into groups according to subsidies on investments, their share in gross investment and the share of gross investments in fixed assets. The relationship between subsidies on investments and gross investment ranges from middle to higher dependency. The amount of subsidies on investments does not significantly affect the amount of current Farm Net Income. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climatic conditions of environmental zone Nemoral 2 of Europe are favorable for agricultural development. However, more frequent events of hot air-waves and prolonged droughts occurring as a consequence of climate change lead to soil moisture content reduction down to the plant wilting point. Dry soil conditions may have negative consequences for soil as a habitat. The goal of this study was to evaluate the cumulative after-effect of long-term conventional (CT) and no-tillage (NT) application in combination with or without crop residues on soil physicochemical properties, microbiological activity, and soil respiration (SR) under prolonged dry soil conditions. Long-term CT with residue returning created a soil environment that was more resistant to dry conditions than NT. Longterm CT with residue returning created a qualitative soil environment in which the main direct determinants for SR were fungal (F) and bacterial (B) community and carbon/nitrogen ratio (C/N). Slightly weaker contributors for SR were available phosphorus (PAL), plant wilting point (PWP), plant available water (PAW), and urease activity (UR); however, they acted as indirect factors. Long-term spreading of residues on soil surface under NT determined the decrease in water capacity in mesopores and micropores. Significant reduction in field capacity and PWP was revealed, while PAW remained unchanged compared to NT with residues removed. Main direct determinants for SR were F and PAL. Slightly weaker indirect contributors for SR were B, dehydrogenase, UR, and PAW. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Sociologia Ruralis is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Sociologia Ruralis is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Sociologia Ruralis is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)