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Supporting transitions to sustainable, resilient agri-food systems is important to ensure stable food supply in the face of growing climate extremes. Agroecology, or diversified farming systems based on ecological principles, can contribute to such systems. Based on a qualitative case study of Nicaragua, a forerunner in agroecology, this paper unpacks an ongoing transition to agroecology, focusing on how the transition has been shaped by knowledge flows and intermediary actors. Using a niche development framework based on knowledge processes, we analyze the growth of the agroecological niche in Nicaragua over three phases of niche development. The findings show how knowledge processes' emphases have shifted over time, as have functions enacted by intermediaries. Dedicated, diversified intermediaries have been key in creating momentum for agroecology, as have individual actors moving between niche and regime. Agency in niche development has come from both niche and regime actors. Finally, we find that Nicaragua's transition to agroecology has been ambiguous: While the niche has succeeded in changing the mainstream selection environment to its favor in some arenas, transition dynamics lag in others. Drawing lessons from this ambiguity, we suggest entry points for broader systems change, such as market stimulation, value chain development, phase-out policies, and supportive policy in related arenas. We also point out possible actions for niche actors such as integration of financial and commercial actors into niches and creation of dedicated market-focused intermediaries. Our results provide evidence of an ongoing transition and action points for supporting niche development in (sustainable agri-food) transitions around the globe.

Recent studies highlight a growing concern over the limited adoption of climate smart agricultural (CSA) practices despite their potential benefits on adaptation, mitigation and productivity. Literature indicates several factors behind the lack of adoption including socio-demographic and economic conditions, agro-ecological scales and the nature of the practices. This paper examines to what extent and under which conditions such factors influence the adoption of CSA practices at farm, household and community level across three study sites in different continents: Vietnam, Nicaragua and Uganda. While cost benefit analysis (CBA) is employed to assess the farm-level profitability of CSA practices, the aggregate community impact disaggregated by different groups of farmer typologies with specific socio-economic features is derived from the adoption rate estimated by the relative advantage of practices and the income level of each group. Our main findings show great variation of farm-profitability of CSA practices across scales. Similar practices could generate different profitability depending on crop typologies, input access and prices, household types and local context. Regarding the aggregate profitability of CSA practices at regional scale, we found that under particular conditions, relevant factors of adoption matter to the adoption pattern and thereby affects the ranking. Such conditions include (i) high income inequality, (ii) large profitability gap of prioritized CSA practices, and (iii) large proportion of cost and benefit of the practices in the level of income. This study contributes to enhancing the prioritization process of CSA practices and provides practical guidance for research and policy to tailor the investment to appropriate end-users to assure the greatest impact for the community., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Based on qualitative research conducted in three regions of Nicaragua, this paper examines the contribution of the communitarian approach to the new rurality in understanding the orientation and tensions within the peasant cooperative movement. The thematic analysis of 30 semi-structured interviews carried out with members of grassroots cooperatives reveals two main categories of motivation for engagement within the cooperative movement. A first set of motivations shows the will to transform the productive structures through small producer organisations to better adapt to the challenges imposed by global economic integration. A second set of motivations highlights broader socio-political objectives that seem to crystallise around the desire to build long-term alternatives to the exclusionary process of neoliberal globalisation. I explore these motivations in light of the distinction between reformist and communitarian approaches to the new rurality. I outline that the articulation of these two approaches, and more particularly the contribution of the communitarian approach, makes it possible to better understand the tensions within the cooperative movement in regard to socio-economic challenges. On this basis I call for a greater consideration of the communitarian dimensions of the new rurality to better define the role of the state, public policies and non-governmental organisations in supporting these phenomena. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses a methodology to model precipitation indices and premium prices for index-based drought insurance for smallholders. Spatial basis risk, which is borne by the insured, is a problem, especially in variable topography. Also, site-specific drought risk needs to be estimated accurately in order to offer effective insurance cover and ensure financial sustainability of the insurance scheme. We explore farmers' perceptions on drought and spatial climate variability and draw conclusions concerning basis risk with regards to the proposed methodology. There are technically many options to represent natural heterogeneity in index insurance contracts while serving the customer adequately and keeping transaction costs low.

This paper investigates the structure of the labor market in Nicaragua and is aimed at understanding the determinants of the choice between a number of segments, namely inactivity, unemployment, agriculture, the formal and the informal sectors. In addition, a model with a separate participation equation is estimated: it allows us to understand that age mainly is a supply-side factor, while education is an important element determining employer's choices Information networks, captured by the presence of a household member working in the formal sector, and geographical barriers to mobility also play a leading role. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes two educational programs initiated to address the problems of farmworker pesticide poisoning in Nicaragua and in the United States and Puerto Rico. Both programs utilize a participatory and action-oriented educational methodology known as popular education. The methodology is presented using examples to demonstrate its application to the planning, delivery and evaluation of pesticide education programs. Preliminary outcomes of using this methodology are also explored as well as implications for developing future training programs in the field.

Summary Recurrent food insecurity in the highlands of Central America has been exacerbated by the recent convergence of a coffee leaf rust outbreak that began defoliating crops in 2011 and a drought that started in 2014. In the context of these multiple challenges, this paper explores how seasonal hunger is related to smallholder organizational affiliation, farm and farmer characteristics, and post-hazard household-level coping strategies. The study integrates qualitative research, hydro-climatic data analysis, and a survey of 368 households completed in 2014. A number of household capacities correlate significantly with shorter periods of seasonal hunger: households with larger farms, with off-farm employment, and that produce more than half of their food, maintain more fruit trees, and harvest more coffee reported fewer lean months. We find evidence consistent with path dependence in how households cope with a sequence of environmental hazards, as the reported use of less preferred coping responses to past events (e.g., Hurricane Mitch and the 2009 drought) tended to correlate with their continued use after subsequent hazards. A comparison of coping responses of households affiliated with a farmer-to-farmer institution promoting subsistence-oriented production with those affiliated with cooperatives prioritizing sustainable coffee exports shows that farmer institutions were not strongly correlated with the number of lean months or coping mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the existence of a long-run relationship between indigence or extreme poverty reduction and agricultural, manufacturing and tourism development in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. An econometric methodology consisting of an autoregressive distributed lag bounds testing approach to co-integration is used. For Costa Rica, agricultural and manufacturing (not statistically significant) and tourism development are negatively related to indigence poverty with estimated elasticity values of -0.50 for agriculture, -0.17 for manufacturing and -0.58 for tourism. For Nicaragua, the estimated elasticity values are -0.40 for agriculture, -0.13 for manufacturing (not statistically significant) and -0.64 for tourism. Tourism's rate of poverty reduction was statistically significantly greater than that of agriculture for both countries. The main contribution of this paper lies in the understanding of sector contributions to alleviating poverty. The methods utilized can be undertaken by most countries in the world, thereby providing insights into developing targeted investment policies and strategies to achieve higher rates of poverty reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: This paper assesses the current rural development practice against the main trends in recent rural development thinking, based on evidence from four country case studies. While much progress has been made in understanding the need to look beyond only agriculture for the promotion of productive activities in rural areas, and the “institutional vacuum” consistently identified in the rural non-farm (RNF) literature is gradually being filled, much remains to be done. One aspect on which more research is particularly needed is the development of better mechanisms to promote productive investment rather than just social investment and to assess the appropriate level—community, regional, and national—at which to do this. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper links changing global coffee markets to opportunities and vulnerabilities for sustaining small-scale farmer livelihoods in northern Nicaragua. Changing governance structures, corporate concentration, oversupply, interchangeable commodity grade beans, and low farm gate prices characterize the crisis in conventional coffee markets. In contrast, certified Fair Trade and organic are two alternative forms of specialty coffee trade and production that may offer opportunities for small-scale producers. A research team surveyed 228 farmers to measure the impact of sales on organic and Fair Trade markets. The results suggest that participation in organic and Fair Trade networks reduces farmers' livelihood vulnerability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Leptospirosis is a worldwide prevalent zoonosis and chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a leading global disease burden. Because of pathophysiological changes in the kidney, it has been suggested that these conditions may be associated. However, the extent of this interaction has not been synthetized. We aimed to systematically review and critically appraise the evidence on the association between leptospirosis and CKD. Methodology/Principal findings: Observational studies with a control group were selected. Leptospirosis, confirmed with laboratory methods, and CKD also based on a laboratory assessment, were the exposures and outcomes of interest. The search was conducted in EMBASE, MEDLINE, Global Health, Scopus and Web of Science. Studies selected for qualitative synthesis were assessed for risk of bias following the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. 5,981 reports were screened, and 2 (n = 3,534) were included for qualitative synthesis. The studies were conducted in Taiwan and Nicaragua; these reported cross-sectional and longitudinal estimates. In the general population, the mean estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was lower (p<0.001) in people testing positive for antileptospira antibodies (eGFR = 98.3) than in negative controls (eGFR = 100.8). Among sugarcane applicants with high creatinine, those who were seropositive had lower eGFR (mean difference: -10.08). In a prospective analysis, people with high antileptospira antibodies titer at baseline and follow-up, had worse eGFR (p<0.05). Conclusion: Although the available evidence suggests there may be a positive association between leptospirosis and CKD, whereby leptospirosis could be a risk factor for CKD, it is still premature to draw conclusions. There is an urgent need for research on this association. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As climate change continues to exert increasing pressure upon the livelihoods and agricultural sector of many developing and developed nations, a need exists to understand and prioritise at the sub national scale which areas and communities are most vulnerable. The purpose of this study is to develop a robust, rigorous and replicable methodology that is flexible to data limitations and spatially prioritizes the vulnerability of agriculture and rural livelihoods to climate change. We have applied the methodology in Vietnam, Uganda and Nicaragua, three contrasting developing countries that are particularly threatened by climate change. We conceptualize vulnerability to climate change following the widely adopted combination of sensitivity, exposure and adaptive capacity. We used Ecocrop and Maxent ecological models under a high emission climate scenario to assess the sensitivity of the main food security and cash crops to climate change. Using a participatory approach, we identified exposure to natural hazards and the main indicators of adaptive capacity, which were modelled and analysed using geographic information systems. We finally combined the components of vulnerability using equal-weighting to produce a crop specific vulnerability index and a final accumulative score. We have mapped the hotspots of climate change vulnerability and identified the underlying driving indicators. For example, in Vietnam we found the Mekong delta to be one of the vulnerable regions due to a decline in the climatic suitability of rice and maize, combined with high exposure to flooding, sea level rise and drought. However, the region is marked by a relatively high adaptive capacity due to developed infrastructure and comparatively high levels of education. The approach and information derived from the study informs public climate change policies and actions, as vulnerability assessments are the bases of any National Adaptation Plans (NAP), National Determined Contributions (NDC) and for accessing climate finance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The control of Triatoma dimidiata, a major vector of Chagas disease, was believed to eliminate Trypanosoma cruzi transmission in Central America. This vector was known for its ability to repeatedly reinfest human dwellings even after initial insecticide spraying. Current vector control programs assume that community-based surveillance can maintain low levels of infestation over many years, despite a lack of evidence in the literature to corroborate this assumption. This study aims to evaluate long-term reinfestation risk in the Nicaraguan vector control program from 2010 to 2016. Methods: We collected data from a cohort of 395 houses in Pueblo Nuevo, Nicaragua. Primary data were collected through a field survey to assess post-intervention levels of T. dimidiata house infestation in 2016, two years after the large-scale insecticide spraying. We obtained secondary data from the records about past infestation levels and control activities between 2010 and 2015. Multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression analyses were used to identify factors associated with post-intervention house infestation. Results: The control program effectively reduced the infestation level from 2010 to 2014. Community-based surveillance was introduced in 2013; however, post-intervention infestation in 2016 had nearly reached pre-intervention levels in rural villages. Post-intervention house infestation was positively associated with poor wall construction, roofing tiles piled in the peri-domestic areas or the presence of dogs. Interestingly, the odds of post-intervention house infestation were one-fifth less when villagers sprayed their own houses regularly. Past infestation levels and the intensity of government-led insecticide spraying did not explain post-intervention house infestation. Conclusions: The vector control program failed to offer sustained reductions in T. dimidiata house infestation. This experience would suggest that community-based surveillance is an insufficient approach to suppressing T. dimidiata house infestation over many years. This study provides evidence to suggest that control policies for T. dimidiata should be reconsidered throughout Central America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is an annual grain legume that was domesticated in Mesoamerica (Central America) and the Andes. It is currently grown widely also on other continents including Africa. We surveyed seedborne viruses in new common bean varieties introduced to Nicaragua (Central America) and in landraces and improved varieties grown in Tanzania (eastern Africa). Bean seeds, harvested from Nicaragua and Tanzania, were grown in insect-controlled greenhouse or screenhouse, respectively, to obtain leaf material for virus testing. Equal amounts of total RNA from different samples were pooled (30–36 samples per pool), and small RNAs were deep-sequenced (Illumina). Assembly of the reads (21–24 nt) to contiguous sequences and searches for homologous viral sequences in databases revealed Phaseolus vulgaris endornavirus 1 (PvEV-1) and PvEV-2 in the bean varieties in Nicaragua and Tanzania. These viruses are not known to cause symptoms in common bean and are considered non-pathogenic. The small-RNA reads from each pool of samples were mapped to the previously characterized complete PvEV-1 and PvEV-2 sequences (genome lengths ca. 14 kb and 15 kb, respectively). Coverage of the viral genomes was 87.9–99.9%, depending on the pool. Coverage per nucleotide ranged from 5 to 471, confirming virus identification. PvEV-1 and PvEV-2 are known to occur in Phaseolus spp. in Central America, but there is little previous information about their occurrence in Nicaragua, and no information about occurrence in Africa. Aside from Cowpea mild mosaic virus detected in bean plants grown from been seeds harvested from one region in Tanzania, no other pathogenic seedborne viruses were detected. The low incidence of infections caused by pathogenic viruses transmitted via bean seeds may be attributable to new, virus-resistant CB varieties released by breeding programs in Nicaragua and Tanzania. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Livestock systems in the tropics can contribute to mitigate climate change by reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and increasing carbon accumulation. We quantified C stocks and GHG emissions of 30 dual-purpose cattle farms in Nicaragua using farm inventories and lifecycle analysis. Trees in silvo-pastoral systems were the main C stock above-ground (16–24 Mg ha-1), compared with adjacent secondary forests (43 Mg C ha-1). We estimated that methane from enteric fermentation contributed 1.6 kg CO2-eq., and nitrous oxide from excreta 0.4 kg CO2-eq. per kg of milk produced. Seven farms that we classified as climate-smart agriculture (CSA) out of 16 farms had highest milk yields (6.2 kg cow-1day-1) and lowest emissions (1.7 kg CO2-eq. per kg milk produced). Livestock on these farms had higher-quality diets, especially during the dry season, and manure was managed better. Increasing the numbers of CSA farms and improving CSA technology will require better enabling policy and incentives such as payments for ecosystem services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tropical forest conversion to pasture, which drives greenhouse gas emissions, soil degradation, and biodiversity loss, remains a pressing socio-ecological challenge. This problem has spurred increased interest in the potential of small-scale agroforestry systems to couple sustainable agriculture with biodiversity conservation, particularly in rapidly developing areas of the tropics. In addition to providing natural resources (i.e. food, medicine, lumber), agroforestry systems have the potential to maintain higher levels of biodiversity and greater biomass than lower diversity crop or pasture systems. Greater plant diversity may also enhance soil quality, further supporting agricultural productivity in nutrient-limited tropical systems. Yet, the nature of these relationships remains equivocal. To better understand how different land use strategies impact ecosystem services, we characterized the relationships between plant diversity (including species richness, phylogenetic diversity, and natural resource diversity), and soil quality within pasture, agroforests, and secondary forests, three common land use types maintained by small-scale farmers in the Pearl Lagoon Basin, Nicaragua. The area is undergoing accelerated globalization following the 2007 completion of the region’s first major road; a change which is expected to increase forest conversion for agriculture. However, farmer agrobiodiversity maintenance in the Basin was previously found to be positively correlated with affiliation to local agricultural NGOs through the maintenance of agroforestry systems, despite these farmers residing in the communities closest to the new road, highlighting the potential for maintaining diverse agroforestry agricultural strategies despite heightened globalization pressures. We found that agroforestry sites tended to have higher surface soil %C, %N, and pH relative to neighboring to secondary forest, while maintaining comparable plant diversity. In contrast, pasture reduced species richness, phylogenetic diversity, and natural resource diversity. No significant relationships were found between plant diversity and the soil properties assessed; however higher species richness and phylodiversity was positively correlated with natural resource diversity. These finding suggest that small, diversified agroforestry systems may be a viable strategy for promoting both social and ecological functions in eastern Nicaragua and other rapidly developing areas of the tropics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationships among trade, food sovereignty and food security are underexplored. I conducted qualitative research with an influential cooperative to identify lessons that food sovereignty (FS) scholars could learn from fair trade and food security, and explore linkages among these projects. First, most co-op leaders and farmers view these projects as complementary, not contradictory. Second, state-led agrarian reforms and co-ops increase access to land, markets, water, forests and pasture, which have reduced – but not eliminated – seasonal hunger. Third, these diversified fair trade coffee-exporting smallholders could be part of a FS agenda. However, the split in fair trade suggests that only specific versions of fair trade are compatible with FS. Fourth, capable cooperatives can enhance fair trade and FS goals, and food security outcomes. Fifth, organised smallholders resisting the fair trade split could learn from the FS social movement’s strategies. Food insecurity remains a persistent challenge to both approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In light of continued debate regarding the capacity of small-scale agricultural producers to compete amidst globalization and/or liberalization, we examine recent trends in the distribution and use of agricultural landholdings in developing nations via refined exploration of the Nicaraguan case. With nationally-representative, Living Standards Measurement Survey-type data for the years 1998, 2001, and 2005, we employ Markov chain methods within an information-theoretic framework in an attempt to advance the analysis of structural transformation in developing countries beyond the examination of trends in mean farm sizes or Gini coefficients, approaches ill-suited to the detection of the apparent complexities of structural change. Further, while Markov chain analysis has witnessed relatively widespread application in the investigation of structural transformation in developed nations, we offer a novel methodological extension by allowing for the simultaneous exploration of structural transformation across multiple dimensions-namely, structural change in both the distribution and use of agricultural landholdings-as well as the incorporation of microlevel determinants of farm size and land use change. The results of the inquiry, above all, suggest that Nicaragua's agricultural and livestock sector is characterized by a definitive persistence of smallholders. While a moderate tendency toward bifurcation in the distribution of landholdings would appear to obscure any immediate relationship between operational landholdings and land productivity, we contend that such trends are, in fact, consistent with the often observed inverse farm size-productivity relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To support a sustainable increase in agricultural productivity, the multipurpose legumeCanavalia brasiliensiswas integrated as forage and green manure into the smallholder crop-livestock system of the Nicaraguan hillsides. Through on-farm trials, surveys, and on-station experiments, we investigated the biophysical and socioeconomic tradeoffs in balancing livestock feeding with soil fertility management at the farm level, including farmers’ perception. Use as forage increased milk yields while use as green manure increased nutrient cycling efficiency. Short-term net annual income decreased when used as green manure and increased when used as forage. Management options to handle tradeoffs and maximize legume benefits are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To understand how regulation influences competitiveness and upgrading processes, this article focuses on the organizational changes involved in “rewarding regulation.” Through a qualitative study of two clusters in the agrifood industry in Nicaragua, it analyzes two types of regulation and their interaction with small producers’ production organizations: food safety and environmental sustainability. The analysis shows that regulation plays a crucial role in fostering changes in organizational practices and routines. This occurs when local organizations build new knowledge and skills to upgrade products and production processes, while developing new connections among producers and between them to other private and public actors that support economic development. “Rewarding regulation” is part of a process of learning and creating networks that help build local know-how and generate supportive collective resources. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article argues against 'microfinance narcissism' and calls for a re-politicization of the microfinance paradigm. The dominant verdict on microcredit has undergone a damning transformation, from 'magic bullet for poverty reduction' to 'cause of suicide'. Nowadays, both radical critics and mainstream voices deplore microcredit's negative impact on micro-entrepreneurs. They argue for a reorientation where credit is targeted at established small and medium-sized enterprises, particularly in rural areas. The crisis in microfinance worldwide, including burgeoning protests, are viewed as proof of the commercial derailment and/or misplaced faith in microfinance's positive social and economic impact on the poor. This article engages with this debate through a study of the Nicaraguan micro-finance crisis. It challenges existing analyses that pin the crisis on agricultural over-indebtedness, lack of due diligence, or Sandinista populist politics. Illustrating the dangers of neglecting the diverse nature of microfinance, it reveals the paradoxical outcomes of the crisis: a refocus on the urban at the expense of agricultural credit for small and medium enterprises and a consolidation of the power of national processing elites. Nicaragua's Non-Payment Movement is also shown to be both a product of elite manipulation and an expression of legitimate resistance to an industry that turns a blind eye to the manner in which markets and politics constrain clients' potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyses a localised agro-food system producing Queso Chontaleño ( QC) cheese in the Chontales Department in Nicaragua and the first effects of the Geographical Indication ( GI) scheme which alters the power relations between the actors of the cheese-dairy sector within the framework of global dynamics. The first part focuses on systèmes agro-alimentaires localisés ( SYAL), or localised agro-food systems, and it provides the theoretical background to the case study. The second part analyses the QC SYAL and its territorial and institutional context. It is found that GI introduces new competitive pressures that reinforce local elites at the expense of traditional QC actors and that the weak involvement of the State may prevent GIs from enhancing the development of territorialised agro-food systems. The conclusion is a recommendation to EU policymakers that promotion of GIs at the level of the WTO be accompanied by measures that can ensure stricter national legislations on GIs to protect local resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article draws on longitudinal, ethnographic data gathered in rural Nicaragua over a two-decade period to examine the ideological and political implications of neoliberalism in the prefigurative, grassroots stages of social mobilization. It contrasts divergent path-dependent processes of accommodation and resistance to neoliberalism as Nicaraguan peasants have moved from collectivism to individual farming, with an emphasis on interpretive processes. This study explores how market processes both serve as an external grievance and operate internally in rural communities to reconfigure rural social relations and individual and collective identities. It also seeks to develop concepts and interpretations that may be applied more broadly to analyze links between deepening market processes and the forms and content of social movement responses to deteriorating economic conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluated an ergonomics intervention among Nicaraguan coffee harvesting workers, using electromyography and questionnaire survey techniques. Nicaraguan researchers were involved in the study so that they could gain hands-on experience with ergonomics research and applications, and eventually be the specialists conducting ergonomics interventions in Nicaraguan workplaces. Coffee harvesting activities were studied individually and physical hazards were identified accordingly. The results showed decreased muscle loading on the erector spinae muscle and improved comfort reporting in the back region compared to the commonly used baskets. This fulfils the design objective of a newly developed bag that was used in the intervention to reduce physical workload on the coffee harvesting workers. Workers' opinion survey results showed some issues related to the size of the new bag and the lumbar-shoulder belt mechanism. This information can be used in the modification of the bag in the next design. Key players in the process have been identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the impact of a Nicaraguan conditional cash transfer programme on measures of expenditures and productive investment. Despite clear evidence from a randomised evaluation that the programme increased current expenditures, there is little evidence that it increased agricultural or non-agricultural investment. An estimated marginal propensity to consume out of the transfers of nearly one, combined with no effect of cumulative past transfers on current consumption, corroborate the direct evidence on investment. In contrast to gains made in human capital investment, the potential for long term increases in consumption as a result of other forms of increased investment may be limited. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article compares how public protection of forests and common-property forest institutions serve to control outside encroachment into frontier forests in Honduras and Nicaragua. The article combines institutional analysis with ethnographically based fieldwork and analysis of land-cover images to evaluate how property-rights arrangements influence monitoring, enforcement, and compliance with rules to restrict agricultural expansion in two biosphere reserves in the Mosquitia Corridor. Findings show that territorial demarcation and common-property rights are important components for frontier forest conservation. In areas with weak enforcement mechanisms and heavy reliance on social norms over official regulatory measures, the findings suggest that the perceived legitimacy of tenure arrangements and their respective land-use rules are fundamental to controlling the agricultural frontier. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article considers wage&ThickSpace;–&ThickSpace;labour activities by agricultural households in Nicaragua. It analyses the role of: (1) comparative advantage as determined by individual and household characteristics; and (2) agricultural conditions and market imperfections, in shaping wage&ThickSpace;–&ThickSpace;labour supply. An econometric specification is developed which allows for random household-specific effects. Results reveal that non-agricultural wage work is largely determined by comparative advantages, whereas agricultural wage work is used to deal with a number of agricultural conditions and market imperfections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cocoyam ( Xanthosoma spp.), the third most important starch food crop in Nicaragua, can be cultivated countrywide. However, very little information about the field performance and genetic background of the different genotypes is available. In this study, the agronomic performance of three purple genotypes established in four locations with different climatic conditions, were evaluated during 2 years. Phenotypic characteristics, yield, and virus incidence were assessed and the time at which the different genotypes reached their physiological maturity was estimated. The trials were based on randomized complete block design with three or four blocks. Genotype × location interaction was found both for phenotypic and yield traits. A differential response of the genotypes to the varying climatic conditions at the locations is suggested to be one of the causes to the interaction. The unpredictable and variable climate in the area where cocoyam traditionally has been grown is one possible explanation to the frequent genotype × year interaction at that location. Other locations with more stable climate only showed an interaction between genotype and year in a few traits. The genotypic differences regarding the time when the area of the largest leaf reached its maximum and the variation in presence of sprouts and roots on the cormels at harvest, indicate differences in optimal harvest time between genotypes. The percentage of plants infected with dasheen mosaic virus (DMV) differed across locations but not between genotypes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Farmers in the Nicaragua countryside face substantial risk due to legal uncertainty regarding property rights, price fluctuations and limited access to rural financial markets. Income shocks can lead to obligations to sell land, can fuel differentiation processes, and can drive people into poverty. We review empirical evidence on income shocks and related distress sales by households of different wealth endowments. From panel data of the 1995 and 2000 land market surveys, estimates are made to identify relevant farm household characteristics and the market forces that determine distress sales. Results show that small farms are most affected by idiosyncratic shocks and usually try to adopt a defensive strategy based on reduced consumption to retain their land resources. In the long run, this strategy occasionally succeeds in preserving land ownership and maintaining income at higher levels than those enjoyed by landless peasants. But the pressures towards distress sales can, nevertheless, be powerful, and different responses to income shocks by poor, middle and rich peasants are likely to increase rural differentiation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The BOSAWAS Natural Resource Reserve of Nicaragua was established in 1991, to protect a portion of the remaining tropical rain forest and to promote the sustainable use of the region's resources. Information required to effectively manage the reserve includes the extents and locations of present land-cover types and recent land-cover changes in the management use zones that were delineated by local indigenous communities. These zones include areas designated for conservation, limited resource extraction, agriculture, and watershed protection. Land-cover for 1986 and 1995 was identified for three of the communities from remotely sensed images and then input into a geographic information system database to identify land-cover types within these management use zones. For both dates of the analysis, advanced forest was the dominant land cover, with the conservation zones entirely forested. The amount of both agricultural land and scrub/early secondary forest increased between the two dates, with much of these land-cover classes occurring in the agriculture zones. Conflicts between the land-cover present and designated use were identified in some of the limited-use buffer and watershed protection zones. Changes between 1986 and 1995 were identified by overlaying the two land-cover data sets. Three change processes were identified as occurring: deforestation, reforestation, and reconversion. Changes were concentrated in the agriculture zones but were found to occur in every type of zone, except for conservation. The results of this study will establish baseline information for the future management of the BOSAWAS Reserve, an important component in uniting conservation areas along the Central American isthmus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents a land cover analysis of three indigenous communities in the BOSAWAS region in Nicaragua that are attempting to develop comprehensive land use management plans. Description of the communities under study; Land cover classification scheme; Three processes of land cover changes that occurred between 1986 and 1995; Impact of Nicaragua's civil war on indigenous people's agricultural activities.

Focuses on a study on transition of Nicaragua from a revolutionary state to a country oriented toward democracy and the market, through the political lens of agricultural property rights. Discussion on the politics of agricultural property rights after the democratic transition; Evolution of land tenure and economic growth after privatization of agricultural properties; Persistent conflict over rightful ownership.

The article offers information on the development of capitalism in Nicaragua. It deciphers the historical development of this country's prerevolutionary economy, centering in particular on capitalist development and the contradictions and changes related with it. It is posed that in July 1979 the Nicaraguan Revolution obtained an agrarian structure identified by uneven development as well as widely circulated occurrence of poverty among the semiproletarianized rural population. This agrarian structure was molded by uneven capitalist development of the last thirty years.

The article discusses farmer's response to price in underdeveloped areas. The author presents the case of Nicaragua in his analysis. He states that the behavior of farmers as economic agents has been a subject of some controversy. On the one hand, there are those who believe that farmers, especially farmers in underdeveloped countries, do not respond to price and income incentives and on the other, there are those who maintain that theft behavior is in accord with economic theory but that "shift variables" veil the relationship. At first sight it may seem as if the growth of cotton farming in Nicaragua presents a good case in favor of those who do not believe in the rationality of farmers. Cotton has been in the Nicaraguan export ledger at least since the beginning of the nineteenth century, but it was not until 1950 that cotton exports began to acquire some importance. It was around that time that Nicaraguans from all walks of life apparently decided that the road to wealth was paved with cotton.

Modem development of the Nicaraguan dairy industry is divided into two periods: 1943-1953, and 1953-1967. Nicaragua's first pasteurizing plant, constructed in Managua in 1943, marks the beginning of modernization, but before 1953 a fluctuating, limited output of low quality milk served Nicaragua's capital from a milkshed restricted by the primitive transport network. The remainder of Nicaragua was supplied by milk locally produced. "Dairy farming," which was combined with a second agricultural activity, could be more aptly described as ranching with a dairy adjunct. Climatic and ecological handicaps were rarely offset by good farm management, hence yields per cow and per farm were low and variable. After 1953, when Managua's second pasteurizing plant was completed, a sharp rise in production and consumption of higher quality milk correlated positively with Nicaragua's economic growth and increasing urbanization. An expanding milkshed was permitted by improved cooling and transport facilities. New laws stabilized prices and set qualify minima, Further incentive for improving quality and quantity was provided by Central America's first Milk Pool. Dairy farms have received increasing inputs of labor and capital, with corresponding milk output. In 1967 herds were composed of fewer breed combinations, and were better managed. High milk yields correlated most highly with breeds in 1953, but were more a function of improved practices in 1967. Much overall progress has been made, but standards are still low. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]