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The Program for the Education and Enrichment of Relational Skills (PEERS) social skills intervention has demonstrated effectiveness for adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, studies have been limited by a lack of objective outcome measures and an underrepresentation of Latinx families. This pilot study extends the PEERS literature by utilizing an observational measure of conversational skills (Contextual Assessment of Social Skills; CASS) with a diverse sample of 13 adolescents with ASD (with parent groups conducted in English and Spanish simultaneously) and a control group of 11 neurotypical adolescents. Consistent with previous research, adolescents with ASD and their parents perceived improvements in social functioning following intervention, which were maintained four months later and corroborated by improvements in conversational skills., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Emotional and behavioral problems (EBPs), such as anxiety, overactivity, and aggression, can influence the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The gold standard diagnostic tool for ASD, the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Second Edition, includes three items ("E-codes") for EBPs that are frequently associated with ASD. Few empirical investigations have explored the use of E-codes. This study examined the relationship between E-codes and child characteristics (e.g., cognitive abilities, ASD symptom severity) in a sample of young children with ASD (N = 233). Findings indicated that E-codes positively correlated with ASD symptom severity and negatively associated with IQ. Symptom severity also significantly accounted for the variance in EBPs. Implications for ASD assessment as well as future research are discussed., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.)

To identify target areas for professional development, this mixed-methods study examined general education teachers' perceptions of autism and pedagogical practices in early elementary classrooms in the United States. In focus groups, teachers (N = 18) identified terms they associated with autism and strategies they used for inclusion and relationship building. Participants systematically free-listed and ranked their responses to three prompts. Using ranked responses, saliency scores were calculated to assess the perceived importance and frequency of responses. Teachers' most salient perceptions of autism (e.g., social difficulties, focused/fixed interests) revealed an awareness of core symptoms. Salient inclusion practices included assigning special classroom responsibilities and showcasing student talents; salient relationship-building strategies included embracing students' special interests and engaging in one-on-one time. Implications for teacher trainings are discussed., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Background: Considering the COVID-19 pandemic, understanding the reliability, validity, social validity, and feasibility of using telehealth to diagnose ASD is a critical public health issue. This paper examines evidence supporting the use of telehealth methods to diagnose ASD and outlines the necessary modifications and adaptations to support telehealth diagnosis., Methods and Procedures: Studies were identified by searching PubMed and PsychInfo electronic databases and references lists of relevant articles. Only peer reviewed articles published in English with a focus on using telehealth for the purposes of diagnosing ASD were included. Searches were conducted through June 3rd, 2021., Outcomes and Results: A total of 10 studies were identified as meeting inclusion criteria. Of the eight papers that reported on reliability (e.g., accuracy), telehealth methods to diagnose ASD were between 80-91% accurate when compared with traditional in-person diagnosis. Six studies reported on validity (i.e., sensitivity and/or specificity). All six studies calculated sensitivity, with values ranging from 75% and 100%. Five of the six studies calculated specificity, with values ranging from 68.75% and 100%. The seven papers that reported social validity indicated that caregivers, as well as adult participants and clinicians, were mostly satisfied with telehealth. Feasibility was reported by seven studies and suggests that telehealth methods appear largely viable, though some challenges were reported., Conclusions and Implications: Although findings reviewed here are promising, more research is needed to verify the accuracy, validity, and feasibility of utilizing telehealth to diagnose ASD. Studies with larger sample sizes and samples across sites will be critical, as these will allow clinicians to identify subjects most likely to benefit from telehealth as well as those more likely to require an in-person assessment. This research is important not only due to the current pandemic, but also due to increased prevalence rates of ASD and an insufficient number of diagnostic providers-particularly in rural and/or otherwise under-served communities., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Emerging research suggests that caregiving environments and genetic variants independently contribute to social functioning in children with typical development or autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, biologically plausible interactive models and complimentary assessment of mechanisms are needed to: (a) explain considerable social heterogeneity, (b) resolve inconsistencies in the literature, and (c) develop and select optimal treatments based on individual differences. This study examined the role of child genotypes and responsive parenting in the social development of 104 children with ASD (ages 4-7 years). We utilized a longitudinal, multi-informant design and structural equation models to evaluate: (a) the additive and interactive effects of biologically plausible candidate genes (5-HTTLPR, OXTR, DRD4) and responsive parenting in predicting prospective social development in ASD across three time points spanning 1.5 years, and (b) whether child emotion regulation mediated observed gene x environment interactions (GxEs). Responsive parenting positively predicted prospective change in child social skills; these associations were moderated by 5-HTTLPR and DRD4 in teacher-report models, and DRD4 in parent-report models. No GxE effects were found for OXTR. Emotion regulation did not significantly mediate the GxEs involving 5-HTTLPR and DRD4. Acknowledging the complexities of GxE research, implications for future research, and targeted intervention efforts are discussed., (© 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

ASD symptomology and behavioral problems pose challenges for children with ASD in school. Disagreement between parents and teachers in ratings of children's behavior problems may provide clinically relevant information. We examined parent-teacher disagreement on ratings of behavior problems among children with ASD during the fall and spring of the school year. When child, teacher, and class characteristics were considered simultaneously, only ASD symptom severity predicted informant disagreement on internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. We also examined associations between informant disagreement and parent school involvement. Cross-lagged panel analyses revealed that higher informant disagreement on children's behavior problems in the fall predicted lower parent school involvement in the spring, suggesting that greater informant agreement may foster parental school involvement over time.

The language and social skill deficits associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) warrant further study. Existing research has focused on the contributions of pragmatic language to social skills, with little attention to other aspects of language. We examined the associations across three language domains (semantics, syntax, and pragmatics) and their relations to parent- and teacher-rated social skills among children with ASD. When parent-reported language skills were considered simultaneously, only semantics significantly predicted children's social skills. For teacher-reported language skills, all three language domains predicted children's social skills, but none made unique contributions above and beyond one another. Further research should consider the impact of social context on language expectations and interventions targeting semantic language on children's development of social skills.

Disruptive behavior disorders and social skills were assessed in 187 youth aged 13 years, with typical cognitive development (TD n = 98), intellectual disability (ID n = 37), autism spectrum disorder (ASD, IQ > = 85, n = 26), or Autism Spectrum Disorder with ID (ASD/ID; IQ < 85, n = 26). The primary question was whether youth with ASD and co-morbid ID had greater associated adjustment problems than youth with ASD-only. Youth with ASD, with or without ID, had significantly higher behavior problems and lower social skills than their TD peers. However, youth with ASD and co-morbid ID did not differ from youth with ASD-only on any variable assessed, including behavior problems, behavior disorders, social acceptance, social skills, and student teacher relationships.

This study examined the prevalence of ADHD symptoms and anxiety as reported by parents and teachers for 180 preschool children (ages 4-5) and school-aged children (ages 6-7) with ASD using the Child Behavior Checklist-Parent and Teacher Report Forms (Achenbach and Rescorla, Manual for ASEBA school-age forms & profiles, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, 2001). Parents reported elevated anxiety symptoms in 31% of preschool children and 50% of school-aged children, while teachers reported lower rates of 5 and 30%, respectively. Parents reported elevated ADHD symptoms in 22% of preschool children and 45% of school-aged children, while teachers reported elevations in 20 and 24%, respectively. There was low concordance between parents and teachers, with teachers reporting fewer problems overall. Specific behaviors endorsed by parents and teachers are also discussed.

There is minimal research regarding the personal experiences and perceptions of youth with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Yet, the positive and negative perceptions that youth internalize about their diagnoses are crucial, as they may have a strong impact on individuals' self-concept and well-being. This paper utilizes mixed methods to describe the perceptions of 38 adolescents with ASD about their diagnoses, as elicited via semi-structured interviews. Quantitative analyses explore links between youths' perceptions and other aspects of their social-emotional well-being. Implications are highlighted regarding the importance of shifting the narrative that individuals with ASD develop about themselves and their diagnoses.

Student-teacher relationship (STR) quality during the early school years has important implications for student adjustment and outcomes. Studies with typically developing (TD) children have identified links between parent behaviors and STRs, but these connections remain unexplored for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The present study investigated relationships between observed parent behaviors during a shared literacy task and STRs one year later for 117 children (ages 4-7) with ASD. Children whose parents displayed more intrusiveness had poorer-quality STRs. Further, parent intrusiveness mediated the predictive relationship between child spoken language skills and STR quality. These results suggest that parent intrusiveness plays an important role in the development of STRs for young children with ASD. Implications for intervention and research are discussed.

In an evaluation of Anglo and Latina mothers and their children at risk of autism, this study compared mother-reported child behavioral concerns to staff-observed symptoms of autism. Within Latina mothers, the impact of primary language (English/Spanish), mothers' education, and child age on ratings of developmental concerns was examined. Participants were 218 mothers (Anglo = 85; Latina = 133) of children referred to a no-cost autism screening clinic. Mothers reported on behavioral concerns, autism symptomology, and services received; children were administered the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule by certified staff. Results revealed that Anglo and Latino children did not differ by autism symptoms or classification. However, Anglo mothers reported significantly more concerns than Latina mothers. Within the Latina group, analyses revealed significant interaction effects of language and child age; Spanish-speaking mothers of preschoolers endorsed fewer concerns, while Spanish-speaking mothers of school-aged children endorsed more concerns. Despite these reports, Anglo children with a classification of autism spectrum disorder were receiving significantly more services than Latino children with autism spectrum disorder, suggesting early beginnings of a service divide as well as the need for improved parent education on child development and advocacy for Latino families.

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) vary greatly in social functioning, and in turn, long-term relational and academic outcomes. Responsive parenting which follows a child's lead and focus of attention is predictive of language and social gains for children with or without developmental risk. The present study prospectively assessed 176 families of children with ASD (ages 4 to 7 years) to examine predictors of observed responsive parenting and associations of responsive parenting with concurrent and prospective growth in social functioning by multi-method assessment. Responsive parenting concurrently associated with child characteristics (IQ, language, sex) and child social engagement within the interaction. Structural equation models revealed that responsive parenting positively predicted prospective growth in social skills by teacher but not parent report.

Disruptive behavior disorders were assessed in 160 youth aged 13 years, with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD, n = 48), intellectual disability (ID, n = 28), or typical development (TD, n = 84). Mothers' reported collateral effects on their psychological adjustment were related to both youth disability status and clinical level behavior disorders. More youth with ASD or ID had clinical level behavior disorders than their TD peers, and their mothers reported significantly higher personal stress and psychological symptoms, as well as lower positive impact of the youth on the family. The youth's clinical level behavior disorders accounted for these differences more than the diagnostic status. Mothers high in dispositional optimism reported the lowest stress and psychological symptoms in relationship to youth behavior challenges.

Background and Aims: High quality student-teacher relationships (STR) are important for children's academic and social development. We explore how individual child language domains (semantics, syntax, pragmatics), teacher years of experience, and classroom placement (general or special education) relate to STR quality for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) across the school year., Methods and Procedures: 191 children with ASD (M age  = 5.6 years) completed a standardized language assessment and their teachers reported on STR quality twice during the school year., Outcome and Results: Pragmatics, but not semantics or syntax, had a direct effect on student-teacher closeness. The association between semantics and closeness was moderated by classroom type; for students with low semantics, teacher-reported closeness was lower in general versus special education. Teachers in special versus general education classrooms reported closer relationships. More experienced teachers reported closer and less conflictual relationships. None of the three language domains were associated with student-teacher conflict., Conclusions and Implications: Pragmatic and semantic language skills were associated with closer relationships. Language-focused therapies may be effective in carrying over to impact STR quality. Given the stability in relationship quality, targeted interventions should be delivered to teachers at the beginning of the school year to support positive relationship development., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Increasingly, young adults with autism spectrum disorder are attending 4-year universities. The transition to adulthood can be challenging for these students, and university life poses its own set of demands. The present article takes a mixed-methods approach by including two studies utilizing complementary methodologies. Through in-depth interviews with students with autism spectrum disorder ( n = 13) and college professors ( n = 18), the purpose of the first study was to evaluate the experiences and needs of college students with autism spectrum disorder and identify the knowledge that faculty members possessed about working with these students. Through survey methodology with a larger sample of faculty members ( n = 132), the purpose of the second study was to obtain more information about faculty knowledge of autism spectrum disorder, and to learn whether their pedagogical practices accommodated students with autism spectrum disorder. Findings revealed that autism is often an "invisible" disability on campuses, and there are many things that professors need to know with regard to working with these students in particular. Implications for practice are discussed.

Relationships between early literacy measures (i.e., curriculum-based measurement) and advanced literacy measures (i.e., reading comprehension) were examined in young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Participants in this study were 167 children between the ages of 4 and 7 years ( M = 5 years 8 months), who were assessed at 2 time points during 1 school year. Results indicated that, compared to other measures of early literacy skills, curriculum-based measurements (CBMs) accurately assessed skills in students with ASD. Furthermore, early literacy skills predicted reading comprehension approximately six months later in this sample. The reading development of children with ASD compared to typically developing children appears to be similar in the predictive capacity of decoding skills on later reading skills and dissimilar in the variability and range of skills. CBM tools can provide educators with information about the early reading skills of children with ASD to help address reading and language difficulties seen in this population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Relatively limited research has been devoted to understanding the postsecondary experience from the students' perspectives. In the current study, individual interviews were conducted with university students with autism spectrum disorder (n = 13) and students with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (n = 18) to investigate likely factors impeding meaningful postsecondary experiences. Through an iterative coding process, nine themes were identified, and direct narratives exemplifying each are included. Overall, both diagnostic groups reported significant social, emotional, and academic challenges within the university setting, although there were distinctions. Findings have direct applications to higher education initiatives, such as the development of programs to increase faculty awareness and to target the efforts of university disability centers in meeting the needs of students with neurodevelopmental disorders.

Background: It is known that children with disabilities, especially adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), are at increased risk for victimization. However, little is known about the impact of victimization over time., Aims: Primary aims included identifying to what extent risk factors (i.e., internalizing behavior problems and conflict in friendship) related to bullying victimization over time., Methods and Procedures: In-depth interviews conducted separately with 15-year-olds with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), intellectual disability (ID), or typical development (TD) and their mothers investigated the experiences of victimization in a two-year follow up to an earlier study at adolescent age 13., Outcomes and Results: Findings at age 15 demonstrated that the highest rates of bullying continued to be endorsed by youth with ASD. However, youth with ID were found to experience and report the most severe bullying. Longitudinal examination revealed that internalizing behaviors at age 13 predicted victimization experiences at age 15., Conclusions and Implications: During middle adolescence, youth with ASD continue to experience more frequent victimization. Thus, shifting the focus of interventions that not only target the salient social deficits of ASD, but also address comorbid conditions such as internalizing symptoms, may further contribute to reduction of social isolation and peer difficulties., (Copyright © 2018. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are at heightened risk for developing comorbid psychological disorders, including anxiety disorders, which may be further exacerbated by the presence of externalizing behaviors. Here, we examined how structural language and pragmatic language predicted anxiety and externalizing behaviors. Participants were 159 young children (4-7 years old) with ASD and their mothers. Utilizing structural equation modeling we examined associations among structural language, pragmatic language, anxiety symptoms, and externalizing behaviors. Pragmatic language, was inversely related to child anxiety and co-occurring externalizing behaviors. Structural language skills positively predicted child anxiety. These findings suggest that children with ASD may be at heightened risk for anxiety and externalizing disorders due to their pragmatic language deficits.

There has been little research connecting underlying emotion processes (e.g., emotion regulation) to frequent behavior problems in young children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This study examined the stability of emotion regulation and its relationship with other aspects of child functioning. Participants included 108 children with ASD, ages 4-7, and their primary caregivers. ASD symptoms and cognitive/language abilities were assessed upon study entry. Parents reported on children's emotion regulation, social skills and behavior problems at two time points, 10 months apart. Emotion dysregulation was stable and related strongly to social and behavioral functioning but was largely independent of IQ. Further analyses suggested that emotion dysregulation predicts increases in social and behavioral difficulties across time. Implications for intervention are discussed.

The quality of early student-teacher relationships (STRs) has been shown to predict children's school adjustment, and children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are at risk for poor quality STRs. The present study examined 162 children with ASD (ages 4-7) and their teachers to evaluate student, teacher, and classroom characteristics that predicted concurrent and prospective STR quality across one school year. Child oppositional behavior, autism severity and teacher degree predicted changes in student-teacher conflict over a 1-year period, while child social skills and IQ positively predicted change in student-teacher closeness. Teacher preparedness, trainings in ASD, and classroom setting were unrelated to STR quality. Implications for intervention are discussed.

Perceived loneliness and social competence were assessed for 127 children with ASD without comorbid ID, 4-7 years old, through child self-report. Using an abbreviated version of the Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction Questionnaire (LSDQ; Cassidy and Asher in Child Dev 63:250-365, 1992), the majority of children reported friendships, yet a considerable proportion also reported social difficulties. Factor analysis of the abbreviated LSDQ identified three factors, which were significantly associated with parent- and teacher-reported variables. Regression analyses revealed parent-reported social skills deficits and teacher-reported conflict in the student-teacher relationship to be associated with child-reported loneliness. Implications for practice are discussed.

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Many students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) experience substantial difficulties with socialization and independence, and college campuses often lack appropriate support services in these areas. Residential advisors (RAs), who are trained to support all students living on campus, could be uniquely prepared to positively contribute to the college experience for students with ASD. The aim of this work was to provide a workshop to RAs at a four-year university and to explore their level of knowledge, awareness, and preparedness in supporting students with ASD who live on campus. While over a third of RAs suspected that they had a student with ASD in their residence hall, many RAs expressed not knowing about ASD or understanding the role of student disability services on campus. Most respondents felt that they had a responsibility to support these students and agreed that training in ASD would be useful, suggesting that more extensive training is warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasingly, young adults with autism spectrum disorder are attending 4-year universities. The transition to adulthood can be challenging for these students, and university life poses its own set of demands. The present article takes a mixed-methods approach by including two studies utilizing complementary methodologies. Through in-depth interviews with students with autism spectrum disorder (n = 13) and college professors (n = 18), the purpose of the first study was to evaluate the experiences and needs of college students with autism spectrum disorder and identify the knowledge that faculty members possessed about working with these students. Through survey methodology with a larger sample of faculty members (n = 132), the purpose of the second study was to obtain more information about faculty knowledge of autism spectrum disorder, and to learn whether their pedagogical practices accommodated students with autism spectrum disorder. Findings revealed that autism is often an "invisible" disability on campuses, and there are many things that professors need to know with regard to working with these students in particular. Implications for practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article provides direction for educational decision making specifically for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), who have the cognitive and adaptive capabilities required to pursue postsecondary college education. The purpose is to draw attention to the available postsecondary pathways, 2- and 4-year college options, by addressing important issues for college-bound young adults with ASD. These include living supports, practical skills, social supports, and educational accommodations. Furthermore, the role of educational and faculty supports is emphasized, as this is an area that has received little research attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dual diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and behavior problems and/or mental disorders has become increasingly recognized and studied. Reported rates in samples of mixed-age youth with ASD are often above 70%, making this comorbidity more the rule than the exception. The present study compared rates of disruptive behavior disorder diagnosis in a sample of 13-year-old adolescents with ASD (n = 58), intellectual disability (ID; n = 40), or typical cognitive development (TD; n = 100). In youth without ASD, there was a high negative correlation between IQ and disruptive behavior disorders, assessed with the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC). In youth with ASD, however, the presence of a comorbid disruptive behavior disorder was unrelated to IQ, indicating that higher intelligence was not a protective factor for disruptive behavior disorders (DBDs) in ASD. On four CBCL scales and two DISC scales examined, youth with ASD had significantly higher rates than TD youth, though not generally higher than youth with ID. The most commonly diagnosed comorbid disorder in the early adolescents with ASD was attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. This has implications for planning school-based interventions, particularly for high-functioning children with ASD who are more likely to be fully included in general education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Teens with ID or ASD have similar levels of adaptive behavior. • Increased externalizing problem behaviors result in lower DLS in ASDs. • Interventions should include DLS training to promote independence in ASD teens. Challenges in adaptive behaviors are present in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), while variation in IQ, social skills, and comorbidities are possible influences on adaptive behaviors. However, adaptive behaviors do not consistently map onto cognitive abilities in ASD, as high IQ is not protective against challenges in adaptive behaviors. Additionally, individuals with both ASD and elevated levels of externalizing problem behaviors experience even worse adaptive behaviors. Identifying factors that contribute to the variance in adaptive behaviors, particularly daily living skills (DLS), may inform strategies to improve adaptive behaviors necessary for independence in adulthood. Adolescents with typical cognitive development (TD, n = 84), intellectual disability (ID, n = 30), or ASD (n = 45) were included in this study to examine group differences in adaptive behaviors, identify relations between IQ and DLS, and determine factors that contribute to variance in DLS at youth age 13. The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, 2nd Edition (VABS-II) was used to measure adaptive behaviors. All domains of adaptive behavior were significantly higher in TD groups compared to ASD and ID youth. Significant positive correlations were observed between IQ and DLS in the ASD and ID groups. In the ASD youth group, higher externalizing behavior problems explained the most variance in DLS. DLS are below age-expected levels in young adolescents with ASD, in part because of the higher externalizing behavior problems in this group. Incorporating adaptive skills training and behavior management strategies into current interventions may serve to prepare adolescents and families for the transition to adulthood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reward system has been implicated as a potential neural mechanism underlying social-communication deficits in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, it remains unclear whether the neural reward system in ASD is sensitive to behavioral interventions. The current study measured the reward positivity (RewP) in response to social and nonsocial stimuli in seven adolescents with ASD before and after participation in the Program for the Education and Enrichment of Relational Skills (PEERS®) intervention. This study also included seven neurotypical adolescents who were tested at two time points but did not receive intervention. We examined the RewP across the course of a task by comparing brain activity during the first versus second half of trials to understand patterns of responsivity over time. Improvements in social skills and decreased social-communication impairments for teens with ASD were observed after PEERS®. Event-related potential (ERP) results suggested increased reward sensitivity during the first half of trials in the ASD group after intervention. Adolescents with ASD who exhibited less reward-related brain activity before intervention demonstrated the greatest behavioral benefits from the intervention. These findings have implications for how neuroscience can be used as an objective outcome measure before and after intervention in ASD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]