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The United Kingdom Government intends to require land development in England to contribute to improving biodiversity values. The basis for this, the offsetting of impacts on biodiversity, stems from and reinforces a neoliberal economic approach, fits with the privatising of conservation, and at a landscape level may improve biodiversity values. However, challenging decision-makers is the current lack of robust evidence that offsetting works, meaning allowing development despite uncertain future biodiversity benefits. Additionally, financial support for local government is declining, making it unclear whether and how effective independent auditing of biodiversity net gain will be.

Policies for biodiversity no net loss and net gain underwrite narratives for green growth through advancing reparative logics to ongoing habitat impacts. By enabling offsetting practices that risk accommodating rather than averting land change developments, net principles are said to resemble modes of 'accumulation by environmental restoration'. Biodiversity net principles are frequently depicted visually as a diagram of the mitigation hierarchy for communicational ease and have proliferated over recent decades despite little evidence for their ecological effectiveness. This paper combines economic sociology, visual media analysis of the net diagram and political ecology to account for the stabilisation of net principles in policy frameworks. It highlights the upstream imaginative work that this visual tool and its wider assemblages perform to support offsetting and habitat banking practices on the ground. The paper positions the NNL diagram as a conceptual and ideational technology. It traces the practices through which biodiversity is rationalised by the Cartesian coordinates of an XY schematic, and en-framed as a measure of numerical value on a vertical scale. The effect is to engender coherence to the idea of netting out differences in aggregate sums of biodiversity unit value, making nature conceptually offset-able. I develop this account through a history of the diagram as well as the broader processes that have shaped the policy and its arrival in English planning frameworks. Observers increasingly question how biodiversity offsetting and no net loss/ net gain have become so popular when their empirical foundations are so weak. This paper proposes that within the wider assemblages of actors, one answer is located in the potency and mobility of conceptual technologies such as diagrams of no net loss or net gain of biodiversity and the logic of balance-sheet accounting that is imbricated within the visual design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A growing body of scholarship draws attention to prisons and environmental justice, pointing out the propensity for prisons to be located on contaminated sites and to be in close proximity to polluting industries, as well as for prisons themselves to contribute to local environmental degradation. Prisoners' immobility renders them unable to relocate away from harmful environments, and there are now numerous suggestions that their wellbeing suffers as a result of the poor quality of many local environments. However, since a relationship between environmental quality and prisoner wellbeing is yet to be robustly demonstrated, there is currently no firm evidence base from which to argue for positive change. This paper therefore examines the effect of the environmental quality of the locations of prisons, approximated as the presence of greenspace in the immediate vicinity of prisons, local species biodiversity and local levels of air and noise pollution, on wellbeing outcomes in a set of prisons in England and Wales. It finds that good environmental quality, in the form of high biodiversity and/or low air pollution, enhances the already-recognized positive effects of greenspace on the wellbeing of incarcerated populations. On the basis of these findings, this paper makes evidence-based policy recommendations intended to enhance the wellbeing of incarcerated populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protection and mitigation of biodiversity are essential within land-use planning; highlighted by the increased importance of nature during the global pandemic and the fight against climate change. Currently, the character of both the land and decision-makers can influence the weight biodiversity is ascribed within planning processes. Through analysis of semi-structured interviews, with various actors within the Northamptonshire planning system, this research explored the opportunities and challenges around promoting biodiversity across brownfield sites; the motivations for conservation by different planning actors; and what this means for the future of urban habitats on previously developed land. This research found that brownfield sites continue to be undervalued for their biodiversity potential, predominantly due to the downplaying of ecological expertise in decision-making. With England's proposed planning reforms, this paper argues that tensions between brownfield redevelopment and biodiversity conservation stand to be further exacerbated as the government intends to "scythe through red tape" (Johnson 2020b). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Markets have become an important form of governance in the neoliberal era. The ideology of markets as the most efficient form of organising economic activity has led to the expansion of their usage, both in terms of what is governed by the market, but also in terms of the spaces in which the practices of a given market apply. However, there have been important challenges to market expansion, particularly on political and ethical grounds. This paper analyses how the socio-technical practices of market expansion can be affected by political contestation and individual moral judgements. This is analysed in the context of two markets for biodiversity offsets, in the United States and England. In both cases, regulators attempted to devise and standardise calculative mechanisms and socio-technical practices that promoted the use and expansion of the market. However, these socio-technical market practices have struggled to cross and negotiate uneven political and social spaces, being subject to moral judgements and political contestation. The paper demonstrates how the socio-technical practices of market expansion are affected by social entanglements, highlighting how this creates limits to the expansion of the market as a form of governance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The onset of prehistoric farming brought unprecedented changes to landscapes and their biodiversity. Past biodiversity patterns are broadly understood for different parts of Europe, and demonstrate trajectories that have been linked to prehistoric and historic demographic transitions, and associated land-use practices. To our knowledge, this paper is the first attempt to directly link evidence of agricultural practice from the archaeological record to biodiversity patterns. Records of fossil pollen are used to estimate plant and landscape diversity patterns, and novel approaches are employed to analyse 1194 harmonised archaeobotanical samples (plant macrofossil remains) spanning the prehistoric and Roman periods, from southern England. We demonstrate changes in the use of crops and gathered edible plants and non-linear trends in cultivation practices. Whilst, overall, cereal production is characterised by ever larger and extensive regimes, different trajectories are evident for most of early prehistory, the Middle Iron Age and the Late Roman period. Comparisons with the Shannon diversity of fossil pollen records from the same region suggest a positive relationship between developing agricultural regimes and landscape scale biodiversity during the prehistoric period. The Roman period represents a tipping point in the relationship between expanding agriculture and pollen diversity, with declining pollen diversity evident in the records from the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban green space, although an important aspect of urban life in England since the 19th century, experienced declining quality throughout the late 20th century. The election of the New Labour Government in 1997 saw the development of a new urban policy discourse, which recognized the important contribution of green space to quality of life. This paper examines New Labour's policy measures on urban green space and focuses on the Urban White Paper of 2000, new funding opportunities, planning guidance, changing urban green space governance and the introduction of national and local performance targets. Additionally, it identifies four broad policy discourses surrounding urban green space that reflect different but overlapping understandings of the value and function of urban green space relating to quantity, quality, nature/biodiversity and social/community. The paper concludes that there is a need for further research to examine the implications of changes in the national policy agenda and associated policy discourses for the planning, management and governance of urban green space at the local level. This will also enable a more in-depth analysis and understanding of the four policy discourses identified and provide a platform from which to assess future changes in green space policy and management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Habitat modification coupled with the spread of non-native species (NNS) are among the top threats to marine biodiversity globally. Species are known to be transported to new locations via international shipping and secondarily spread via regional vessels and artificial structures. Rapid Assessment Surveys (RAS) combining quantitative and semi-quantitative methods compared NNS richness and assemblage composition on intertidal natural rocky shores and artificial structures in harbours in different regions along the south coast of England. Quantitative data showed that artificial habitats supported higher richness than natural habitats, while semi-quantitative data found no difference in richness among habitat types. This result was attributed to additional species found in rock pools during searches of complex microhabitats in natural habitats. Assemblages on artificial structures differed among regions, with regions and harbours with greater numbers of vessels supporting greater richness. Results highlight the importance of shipping and artificial structures for NNS introduction and spread., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2018. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

The upgrade and improvement of existing railway lines across the UK has been and still is a priority of the existing administration, as they carry 50% more passengers than they did 10 years ago. In Scotland, the latest figures estimate a total investment of around £1 billion of enhancements within Control Period 5, which includes the Edinburgh-Glasgow Improvement Programme (Egip). This paper focuses on the design and construction of a number of interfaces within Egip, from platform extensions to bridge reconstructions and changes to existing tunnels, with the goal of having the main line between Edinburgh and Glasgow electrified and with train capacity significantly enhanced. In order to minimise any negative impact that the proposed electrification could have on biodiversity, as well as from a suitability point of view, an attempt was made in the design, whenever possible, to accommodate and reuse existing structures as opposed to rendering the existing infrastructure completely obsolete. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessments of river condition are needed to guide all aspects of river management. Such assessments have evolved over three decades from simply capturing the mosaic of river physical habitats to recognizing that habitat mosaics are dynamic, driven mainly by physical processes and modified by human (indirect) pressures and (direct) interventions. To embrace these broader aspects, riparian as well as in‐stream environments need to be evaluated, going beyond subjective assessments to incorporate observations that support understanding of both physical habitat structure and cause‐effect relationships. This paper reports on an operational approach to assessing the physical condition of rivers, which attempts to bridge the gap between a physical habitat and a geomorphic condition assessment. The approach forms part of Biodiversity Metric 2.0, a habitat‐based methodology for measuring and accounting for biodiversity losses and gains resulting from development or land management change at individual project sites across England. The river condition assessment component adopts a bottom‐up multi‐scale approach that integrates field observations of physical habitats and of features indicative of geomorphic processes to deliver assessments of longer subreaches, whose condition is then evaluated within the context of the reach‐scale geomorphological type of river. By applying the assessment before, immediately after, and following recovery from project implementation, changes in condition and their causes can be evaluated. The assessment method is presented to an international audience, outlining its structure, application and testing, and critically discussing its strengths and weaknesses, because the methodological approach could be helpful for devising methods for application in other environmental contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social enterprises ( SEs) re-invest their profits towards a social mission. They have proliferated as post-industrial economies try to meet social need with limited state funding. Scholarship has expanded accordingly, although SEs with primarily environmental objectives have been neglected. This article examines how SEs, in regions noted for wildlife-rich orchards, fund nature conservation by marketing juice and/or cider, thereby attempting to revive economic possibilities for this traditional land use. A common thread between the SEs is their initiation by conservation organisations, and it is possible to group them within models of market intervention. Three models in particular are examined that reveal different approaches and degrees of success in orchard conservation. SE scholarship is marked by a wealth of case studies, and to avoid simply adding to this richness, the paper revisits Jens Beckert's ideas on the social order of markets. His theory that actors strive for stability through forms of co-ordination in dynamic market 'fields' is applied to SEs aiming to produce positive conservation outcomes - or environmental order - from their market interventions. Within limits, social order advances understanding of environmental SE by identifying the multiple challenges they juggle, and revealing the environmental outcomes of SE engagement in markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to analyse the current nature and content of biodiversity reporting practices adopted by English local councils. By adopting a multi-theoretical framework that relies on economic and social theories such as agency, stakeholder, legitimacy and institutional theories, this study also aims to investigate the factors that explain the extent of biodiversity disclosure provided by local councils. Design/methodology/approach: This study uses a self-constructed disclosure index to analyse the biodiversity-related information published in the official websites of 351 English local councils. A multivariate analysis was conducted to analyse the association between local councils' characteristics and biodiversity disclosure. Findings: This study shows that the information disclosed on local biodiversity is limited and does not allow the interested stakeholders to get a comprehensive picture of the current status of local biodiversity. It also provides evidence that the level of biodiversity disclosure is significantly associated with the level of local council's population, the presence of councillors from environmentally oriented parties and environmental non-governmental organisations operating in the local council area, poor biodiversity management practices and local councils' visibility. Originality/value: This study is one of the few accounting studies that provides a comprehensive analysis of biodiversity disclosure by analysing its nature and content and investigating the factors associated with such disclosure. It extends agency, stakeholder, institutional and legitimacy theories, by showing that local councils use voluntary disclosures to satisfy the informational needs of the main stakeholders and to assure that their strategies and practices conform to the values and expectations of the community they represent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is already having impacts on biodiversity within Europe, with habitats and species needing to change and adapt to rising global temperatures and shifts in bio-climatic zones. Spatial planning represents an important intervention to further European, national and local biodiversity objectives for climate change adaptation. Drawing on case-studies of plans for inland and coastal areas, and involving stakeholder workshops, this paper reports on a trans-national study examining the scope of spatial plans in the Netherlands, England and France in addressing the impact of climate change. It concludes that spatial planning is making provision for biodiversity and dynamic natural processes. However, while good practice in planning for biodiversity under conditions of climate change is developing, systematic use is not being made of available procedures. The paper examines some of the barriers to implementation of this new policy commitment to climate change adaptation. Recommendations are made covering policy development to include climate change impacts upon biodiversity, modified procedures for plan-making and the appraisal of plans and projects. Amongst the specific measures recommended are the climate-proofing of projects and plans through the use of EIA and SEA; the integration of plans through adoption of common objectives and review of time horizons and boundaries; and an ecosystem-based planning approach. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The urban fringe has been described as 'planning's last frontier'; a zone of transition and interface between town and country where a broad variety of land uses and activities come together, and where development pressure is often intense. In this paper, we argue that the urban fringe possesses special characteristics, making it more than simply a transitional landscape. These characteristics centre on patterns of land use, biodiversity and leisure/development opportunity which are unique to the urban edge and to land extending away from built-up areas. The uniqueness, diversity and particular dynamics of the urban fringe demands a special brand of planning and management response. Therefore we suggest that the principle of 'multi-functionality' provides a framework for action, showing how diversity can be managed and supported. Through brief case studies, we demonstrate how functional interactions at the urban fringe might be promoted in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes a novel archaeological resource--preserved epiphytes on the timber structure of vernacular buildings--used, to our knowledge, for the first time to quantify a loss of biodiversity between pre-industrial and post-industrial landscapes. By matching the confirmed occurrence of epiphyte species for the pre-industrial period, with a statistical likelihood for their absence in the present-day landscape (post-1960), we robustly identified species that have been extirpated across three contrasting regions in southern England. First, the scale of biodiversity loss observed--up to 80 per cent of epiphytes--severely challenges biodiversity targets and environmental baselines that have been developed using reference points in the post-industrial period. Second, we examined sensitivity in the present-day distribution of extirpated species, explained by three environmental drivers: (i) pollution regime, (ii) extent of ancient woodland, and (iii) climatic setting. Results point to an interacting effect between the pollution regime (sulphur dioxide) and changed woodland structure, leading to distinctive regional signatures in biodiversity loss.

Aim Biodiversity-ecosystem function ( BDEF) experiments commonly group species into arbitrary a priori functional groups, e.g. the grass/forb/legume ( GFL) classification. As a result, the causes of functional group diversity effects are often poorly understood. This paper presents a new process that uses functional trait data to create customized plant functional groups that can be tailored to address specific questions. This method is illustrated throughout with an example taken from a temperate mesotrophic grassland in southern England. Location Silwood Park, Berkshire, UK. Methods The method described applies divisive hierarchical cluster analysis to plant functional trait data (from either field or greenhouse conditions) in order to cluster species into a user-specified number of groups. In our example, this was done using unweighted traits with clear links to C and N cycling. To ensure between-group variance had been maximized, we used a linear discriminant analysis. ANOVA should also be used to compare the mean trait values of groups, in order to make specific hypotheses regarding the effect that each group has upon ecosystem functioning. We compared the resulting groups with the GFL classification to see which was more likely to deliver functionally distinct groups. Results The resulting groups had discrete functional characteristics, so simple hypotheses could be formulated. These groups also appeared to show stronger trait value differences than the GFL classification. Results from the experiment demonstrate that hypothesized removal effects on function were supported, thus validating our approach. Conclusions The method described is applicable to a wide range of communities and is able to recognize functionally distinct groups of species. General use of this approach could result in a more mechanistic understanding of biodiversity-ecosystem function relationships as it can establish experimentally validated links between functional effects traits and ecosystem functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT The invertebrates of natural and semi-natural floodplains are diverse, often rare, and important functionally. Early successional patches formed by flood-deposited, coarse, exposed riverine sediments (ERS) are an important habitat in these riparian ecosystems., Extensive channel modifications and engineering works have removed ERS from much of the European river network. This vulnerability, coupled with their role in strengthening biodiversity and associated ecosystem function, makes it important to catalogue remaining ERS distributions and understand controlling factors., This paper aims to: (1) provide the first systematic, modern assessment of the extent and distribution of ERS in England and Wales; (2) characterize geographical and hydrological features of ERS-rich systems; and (3) model the physical and artificial factors determining the complexity and abundance of ERS in England and Wales., River flow regime analysis and generalized linear modelling were combined to identify variables influencing ERS habitat complexity and abundance., ERS predominates in the north and south west of England and Wales, where headwaters are at higher altitudes and substrates are predominantly glacial, alluvial or sedimentary. Local complexity (average number of individual ERS patches per km) was related to stream power and the potential for sediment transport as reflected by stream slope. ERS habitat area declined with the presence of headwater abstraction, but otherwise ERS was not associated with any identified hydrological regime. However, all rivers were strongly seasonal and characterized by sufficient flashiness to ensure high-flow events throughout the year., These results underline the strong natural controls on the distribution and complexity of ERS, but also that habitat provision can be suppressed by human activities, which has implications for conservation practice., Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been suggested that, when assessing radiation impacts on non-human biota, estimated dose rates due to anthropogenically released radionuclides should be put in context by comparison to dose rates from natural background radiation. In order to make these comparisons, we need data on the activity concentrations of naturally occurring radionuclides in environmental media and organisms of interest. This paper presents the results of a study to determine the exposure of terrestrial organisms in England and Wales to naturally occurring radionuclides, specifically (40)K, (238)U series and (232)Th series radionuclides. Whole-body activity concentrations for the reference animals and plants (RAPs) as proposed by the ICRP have been collated from literature review, data archives and a targeted sampling campaign. Data specifically for the proposed RAP are sparse. Soil activity concentrations have been derived from an extensive geochemical survey of the UK. Unweighted and weighted absorbed dose rates were estimated using the ERICA Tool. Mean total weighted whole-body absorbed dose rates estimated for the selected terrestrial organisms was in the range 6.9 x 10(-2) to 6.1 x 10(-1) microGy h(-1).

Highlights • Biodiversity offsetting relates to UK government's urban development aspirations. • Offsetting enables a social and spatial reterritorialization of socionatures. • Offsetting portrays urban development as the driver of environmental improvement. • Biodiversity offsetting in England is widely contested by local communities. • Struggles for the 'right to the city' should expand to embrace 'rights to nature'. Abstract In this paper, by drawing on primary empirical data obtained through 62 interviews in seven case studies we seek to offer a Marxist historical-geographical analysis of biodiversity offsetting policy in England, and its emergence in the context of the global economic crisis, and government aspirations for large-scale urban development projects. By paying attention to the interplay between offsetting, urbanization and the neoliberal reconstruction of conservation, we aim to extend the focus of the neoliberal conservation literature from the role of offsets as ecological 'commodities' to the way offsetting is used to support the production of space(s), place(s) and nature(s) in line with contemporary patterns of capitalist urban growth. In particular, we show how offsetting operationalized new ideas about nature as a stock of biodiversity, how it streamlined planning to support extended urbanization, how it foreclosed public debate about controversial urban development projects, and how it reterritorialized nature-society relationships. We also give a central role to social contestation against the implementation of offsetting in England, drawing attention to its class character and highlighting the potential for a new emancipatory politics that would encompass a 'right to nature' as a key element of struggles for the 'right to the city'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A conference paper about the importance of urban gardens to biodiversity is presented. It highlights that the garden space in London, England is not proportionate to the other cities in Great Britain. Noted are the benefits associated urban gardens which include providing habitat for wildlife and adapting to impacts of climate change. It cites several native plant and animal species supported by urban gardens such as black redstart, stag beetle and garden trees.

Along heavily engineered urban rivers, river walls and embankments represent the most common habitat available to riparian vegetation. This paper presents the first study into river wall vegetation and the influence of wall surface materials on plant diversity. We were concerned with investigating the plant diversity of such wall habitats, assessing relationships between different wall surface materials and plant diversity, and determining whether river wall and embankment habitats along the River Thames through central London could support native riparian species alongside more typical urban wall flora. Fifteen sites along the River Thames through central London were surveyed to describe wall flora and establish relationships between plant diversity and wall materials. Walls were not species rich, but contained a mix of terrestrial and riparian species. Stone walls with surface fractures and heterogeneous wall surfaces were conducive to plant diversity at the local scale, while wall surface heterogeneity was also important at the landscape scale. Some stratification of vegetation was observed based on wall position relative to flow disturbance. The potential exists for walls to act as sites for habitat improvement and reconciliation ecology within urban rivers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper summarises research based in the city of Birmingham, UK, into the ecological and hydrological performance of extensive green roofs designed to act as mitigation for the loss of brownfield habitat. It focuses particularly on possible trade-offs between design elements that maximise biodiversity potential, and design elements that maximise rainfall run-off management potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ashford, in East Kent, is a government-designated growth area. Between 2001 and 2031, the town is set to grow by 31 000 homes and 28 000 jobs, almost doubling in size. This raises numerous concerns about the ability of the local water infrastructure and Kentish Stour catchment to accept this pressure in the short and long term. The Ashford integrated water management study (AIWMS) set out to address all the issues around water quality, water resources, biodiversity and flood risk to allow Ashford's growth to occur without unacceptable environmental damage. The study reviewed current problems with the water environment, established the key constraints to growth that might arise from the proposed development and identified water management strategies to accommodate Ashford's expansion. The paper reviews the integration methodology that was developed and discusses the lessons learned from the experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Habitat suitability modelling has shown itself to be an important decision support tool for those concerned with the problem of where to target habitat and landscape restoration efforts. However, present approaches generally focus upon the biophysical characteristics of habitats and sites, and tend to ignore the social values associated with landscapes and habitat features. As a result current approaches only partially resolve the problems we face when dealing with a multifunctional landscape. In this paper, we examine how these limitations of current approaches may be overcome. The paper shows that present approaches to suitability modelling can be broadened by linking them to ideas about natural capital and landscape function. The approach is illustrated by means of a case study from the South Downs of England. It is suggested that by using the approach to model the spatial aspects of the natural capital associated with a given landscape, we may provide the user community with a framework that more fully addresses management issues that arise in the context of a sustainable, multifunctional landscape. In the case of the South Downs we show that restoration strategies that seek to take account of the multiple functions of downland differ from those which focus exclusively on enhancing or restoring the biodiversity of these areas. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article presents a speech by Elliot Morley, Minister for Environment and Agri-Environment, delivered at the British Ornithologists' Union Annual Spring Conference 2005 that was held at the University of Leicester from April 1-3, 2005 in Leicester, England. He discusses four objectives that the 2003 Energy White Paper has set out for the energy policy, the horizon scanning project that reviews the potential impact of future policy on British biodiversity, and potential effects of offshore wind farms on birds.

The development process often fails to address adequately the needs of resident wildlife populations. This tends to destroy valuable habitat and results in the death or displacement of resident species. The habitat lost is often replaced, post-development, with landscaped areas that are less suitable for supporting local biodiversity. This paper uses Birmingham Eastside, UK, as a case study to highlight the problems associated with urban biodiversity and development providing ecologically informed principles for sustainable development. A biodiversity audit of the area is used to demonstrate the ecological function of different open-space types showing that highly designed and heavily managed open spaces are less effective than derelict land for enhancing biodiversity. Achieving ecologically successful sustainable development requires strategic management of land at the area scale using habitat replication techniques to allow continuity of habitat during the development process. Management practices that allow natural processes, such as succession, to operate can be used to maximise biodiversity effectively. Moreover, the built environment can be engineered to accommodate habitat structures thus avoiding valuable land-take at ground level, although further work is required to refine the efficacy of existing techniques and to develop new ways in which habitat can be incorporated into built spaces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: This paper describes the development of novel indices of bird-habitat preference to examine bird species' use of habitats and their distributions relative to habitats. It assesses the implications for bird conservation regionally and the scope for biodiversity assessments generally. Location: A 200 km by 400 km area of farmland with seminatural and urban areas, covering south-eastern England. Methods: Cluster analysis was used to link birds to landscapes. Cluster centroid coordinate values were processed to derive indices of bird-habitat preference. Further developments assessed the relative values of individual habitats for birds. Results: Clustering objectively linked birds to landscapes. Maps of the clusters showed strong regional patterns associated with distinctive habitat assemblages. Derived indices related bird species directly to individual habitats and habitats to birds. Even rare species and scarce habitats showed successful linkages, often to each other. Objective corroboration strongly supported the associations of coastal, wetland, urban and woodland birds and habitats; but, it suggested that farmland birds, whose numbers have nearly halved since 1977, may prefer alternative habitats. Main conclusions: Land cover maps from remote sensing provide an effective way to link birds to habitats and vice versa. Thus, generalized habitat maps might be used to extrapolate localized or sample-based bird observations or the results of autecological studies, helping to predict and understand bird distributions in the wider countryside. The weak links between farmland birds and farmland habitats in a region dominated by farming, suggests that reasons for the decline in farmland birds may be deep seated and thus hard to reverse. The procedures described are repeatable elsewhere and applicable more generally to evaluate landscapes and biodiversity. It is suggested that remote sensing could rarely be bettered as a means of assessing habitats, comprehensively, over wide areas, in most parts of the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiversity action plans (BAPs), which are designed to protect and enhance wildlife, can also provide additional benefits to the local economy in terms of job creation and income generation. This paper considers the socio-economic benefits of implementing the BAP for species-rich hedges in Devon. It identifies employment and income generation for hedge contractors, farm labour, trainers, suppliers, processors of hedge products and the tourist industry as a result of #1 million expenditure on hedge restoration work to meet BAP targets. Using data from a survey of hedgerow contractors and key informants in related industries a multiplier analysis identified that funding for hedge restoration can have significant employment and income generation impacts on the local economy. In particular, this multiplier effect is enhanced because both hedge contractors and materials are largely sourced locally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores how international biodiversity commitments (Aichi targets) made in 2010 have been incorporated into spatial planning policy in England. The article analyses the moral, scientific and instrumental arguments underlying the Aichi targets and how they are reflected in the National Planning Policy Framework for England, together with views on the spatial planning approach to biodiversity expressed by local actors in spatial planning. The article concludes that biodiversity has been 'mainstreamed' in English spatial planning policy, but with spatial variations in policy approach between protected sites and the wider countryside and urban areas and with responsibility for biodiversity enhancement in the wider countryside and urban areas relying mainly on local policy and instrumental arguments that are likely to lead to tensions over the 'replaceability' of nature. The concept of connectivity is identified as key to a successful biodiversity strategy, but challenges to achieving connectivity in practice are identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiversity targets are a key tool, used at a global and national policy level, to align biodiversity goals, promote conservation action, and recover nature. Yet most biodiversity targets are not met. In England, the government has committed to legally‐binding targets to halt and recover the decline in species abundance by 2030 and 2042. We present evidence from recent population trends of 670 terrestrial animal species (for which abundance time series are available) as a species abundance indicator, together with a synthesis of case studies on species recovery, to assess the degree to which these targets are achievable. The case studies demonstrate that recovery is possible through a range of approaches. The indicator demonstrates that theoretically targets can be achieved by addressing severe declines in a relatively small number of species, as well as creating smaller benefits for many species through landscape‐scale interventions. The fact that multiple pathways exist to achieve the species abundance targets in England presents choices but also raises the possibility that targets might be reached with perverse consequences. We demonstrate that evidence on achievability is a necessary but not sufficient condition for determining what is required to deliver conservation outcomes and restore biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 155 km long Dorset and East Devon Coast World Heritage Site is recognized for its 250 million years of earth history, including internationally renowned coastal geomorphological landforms and processes. It is a naturally active coast ranging from vertical 'hard' cliffs to very active landslides, protected by both national and international conservation designations. The primary conservation focus of the Site is geoconservation, but its cliff ecosystems also provide outstanding examples of natural resilience to rapid change as well as preserving very important communities. One of the key features of the Site is that its dynamics allow a constant renewal of the visible geology and exposures of fossils, Erosion is accepted as normal. It is a heavily used tourist location with cliff-top paths in use all year and there are concerns about safety, especially for visitors beneath cliffs and crossing mudslides. Management of the Site deals with such issues as fossil collecting and conservation, access, education, coast protection and through a management plan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is growing concern that the way that soils are used often results in their degradation, giving rise to significant costs, both to direct users of soils and to society as a whole. This paper develops and uses an approach to derive the total economic cost of soil degradation in England and Wales. An estimate was made of degradation costs at the national scale for dominant combinations of land cover and soils, defined as ‘soilscapes’. An ecosystem services framework was used to assess how degradation affects the capacity of soils to support a range of ‘final goods’, distinguishing between on-site and off-site costs, and market and non-market effects. Quantifiable soil degradation costs ranged between £0.9 bn and £1.4 bn per year, with a central estimate of £1.2 bn, mainly linked to loss of organic content of soils (47% of total cost), compaction (39%) and erosion (12%). Eighty percent of costs occur off-site and, as such, are often of limited concern to those whose actions may be causing soil degradation. The findings confirm that control of soil degradation has implications for a number of key policy areas such as flood risk management and climate change mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ideal aim of rewilding is to restore natural processes to create ‘selfwilled’ ecosystems involving the creation of large areas of habitat subject to stochastic disturbance, connected by favorable corridors for species to disperse along. Reversion of arable farmland to grassland and scrub habitats on Black Bourn Valley nature reserve in Suffolk (south-east England) through non-intervention allowed succession to occur largely unmanaged. Fields in the early stages of rewilding (4–14 years) are found at Black Bourn Valley, while pond creation has been extensive since 2010, creating water edge habitat and heterogeneity to the re-establishing grassland. Monitoring of Orthoptera revealed statistical evidence that species diversity/richness and field grasshopper Chorthippus brunneus (Thunberg, 1815), meadow grasshopper Pseudochorthippus parallelus (Zetterstedt, 1821), common groundhopper Tetrix undulata (Sowerby, 1806) and slender groundhopper Tetrix subulata (Linnaeus, 1758) were in higher abundance in fields ≥8 years since arable cropping ceased compared to those 4 years post reversion. Fields ≥8 years old were probably favorable due to the presence of microhabitats for basking and egg-laying orthopterans that included ant hills, sparsely vegetated pond edge and open swards with an abundance of fine-leaved grasses (Agrostis and Festuca spp.) and a low abundance of leaf litter. Lagomorph grazing by wild brown hare Lepus europaeus and rabbit Oryctoloagus cuniculus was critical in maintaining exposed soil for Orthoptera in the older fields, while deer paths appeared to create microhabitats that may be utilized by Orthoptera. We postulate that rewilding schemes on arable farmland should use a Rewilding Max approach and avoid the frequent usage of domestic livestock, relying on wild lagomorph and ungulate grazers to maintain an open mosaic habitat structure with only intermittent cattle, horse, or sheep grazing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

West Cornwall is the most south westerly part of mainland United Kingdom with a strong maritime climate. This paper analyses the earliest archived instrumental meteorological records collected in West Cornwall (SW England). Observations were obtained from the Met Office archive (Camborne 1957-2010; Culdrose 1985-2011), Trengwainton Garden (1940-2010), and from the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society, (data for Falmouth (1880-1952) and Helston (1843-1888)). Homogeneity tests were used (Levene and Brown-Forsythe tests) to exclude any trends not related to climate variability. The data exhibit trends in annual mean and maximum temperatures over the timescales analysed, and show a general temperature increase in the 20th and 21st century. Annual and seasonal temperature change was found to vary locally with strongly positive trends in autumn, spring and summer seasons. Trends in precipitation are positive only for the 19th century and only for one station. Correlation with the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) index gives negative results for precipitation data. However correlation with the NAO index is positive with temperature, especially in the winter season. Return period analysis shows a decrease in intensity and frequency of extreme precipitation events in the post-1975 period (Camborne and Trengwainton Garden stations). Climate change in the 20th century and future continued warming is likely to have major implications on biodiversity in this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In order to investigate how the population diversity at major Romano-British urban centres compared to small towns and military outposts, we conducted multi-isotope (carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and strontium) analyses of bones (42 individuals) and teeth (26 individuals) of human skeletons from Cataractonium/Roman Catterick in North Yorkshire (U.K.). The results suggest a markedly less diverse population at Catterick than at the larger towns. Significant differences are observed between burials from the town and fort area and the suburb of Bainesse to the south, and it is suggested that these reflect a shift to more localised recruitment for the Roman army in the Late Roman period. Isotope data for the ‘Bainesse Eunuch’, an unusual 4th century burial that has been interpreted as the remains of a ‘transvestite’ priest of Cybele, are not ultimately conclusive but consistent with origins in Southern Britain or areas with a similar climate abroad. This paper also presents strontium isotope data for modern vegetation samples from 17 sites in the Catterick/northern Vale of York area which contribute to a continuing effort to map the biosphere 87Sr/86Sr variation in Britain. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article discusses the highlights of a joint scientific meeting of Amphibian and Reptile Conservation and the British Herpetological Society held at the Bournemouth Natural Science Society in England on December 6, 2009. The meeting was dedicated to the late herpetologist Julia Wycherley. Several papers were presented during the meeting, including one on the diversity and mate choice in the palmate newt by Gillian Murray-Dickson.

The Somerset Levels and Moors have been designated a `special protection area' under the EU Habitats Directive and a Ramsar wetland of international importance. Water management is important to their well being, but drainage to improve agricultural productivity has reduced habitat quality and biodiversity interest. Over the last decade, significant progress has been made towards halting and (in some areas) reversing the declining wetland flora and fauna. However, the UK Governments target of achieving favourable conservation status by 2010 is unlikely to be achieved without further change. This paper examines the changes which are needed to achieve sustainable agricultural flood-management and conservation objectives in Somerset as a model for wetlands in England and Wales. Agricultural policy and, in particular, the lack of cross-compliance and limited discretionary modulation, is failing marginal areas such as the Somerset Levels and Moors; also, farmers and the environment are losing out. In order to ensure that objectives are clear and options and constraints are understood, increased dialogue between stakeholders is essential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Net outcome‐type biodiversity policies are proliferating globally as perceived mechanisms to reconcile economic development and conservation objectives. The UK government's Environment Bill will mandate that most new developments in England demonstrate that they deliver a biodiversity net gain (BNG) to receive planning permission, representing the most wide‐ranging net outcome type policy globally. However, as with many nascent net‐outcome policies, the likely outcomes of mandatory BNG have not been explored empirically. We assemble all BNG assessments (accounting for ∼6% of England's annual housebuilding and other infrastructure) submitted from January 2020 to February 2021 in six early‐adopter councils who are implementing mandatory no net loss or BNG requirements in advance of the national adoption of mandatory BNG, and analyze the aggregate habitat changes proposed. Our sample is associated with a 34% reduction in the area of nonurban habitats, generally compensated by commitments to deliver smaller areas of higher quality habitat years later in the development project cycle. Ninety‐five percent of biodiversity units delivered in our sample come from habitats within or directly‐adjacent to the development footprint managed by the developers. However, we find that these gains fall within a governance gap whereby they risk being unenforceable, a challenge that is shared with other net outcome type policies implemented internationally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current dearth of long‐term insect population trends is a major obstacle to conservation. Occupancy models have been proposed as a solution, but it remains unclear whether they can yield long‐term trends from natural history collections, since specimen records are normally very sparse. A common approach for sparse data is to coarsen its spatial and/or temporal resolution, although coarsening risks violating model assumptions.We (i) test whether occupancy trends of three social wasp (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Vespinae) species – the common wasp (Vespula vulgaris), the German wasp (Vespula germanica) and the European hornet (Vespa crabro) – have changed in England between 1900 and 2016, and (ii) test the effect of spatiotemporal resolution on the performance of occupancy models using very sparse data. All models are based on an integrated dataset of occurrence records and natural history collection specimen records.We show that occupancy models can yield long‐term species‐specific trends from very sparse natural history collection specimens. We present the first quantitative trends for three Vespinae species in England over 116 years. Vespula vulgaris and V. germanica show stable trends over the time series, whilst V. crabro's occupancy decreased from 1950 to 1970 and increased since 1970. Moreover, we show that spatiotemporal resolution has little effect on model performance, although coarsening the spatial grain is an appropriate method for achieving enough records to estimate long‐term changes.With the increasing availability of biological records, the model formulation used here has the potential to provide novel insights by making use of natural history collections' unique specimen assemblages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on a unique resurvey of the composition of a species rich ancient hedgerow in Cambridgeshire, UK, 27 years after the original study. The hedge contained sections that were unmanaged and unaffected by agrochemicals, as well as sections which were cut annually, adjacent to an intensively managed arable field. Between the two surveys there was a general decline in species richness in all sections of the hedge, particularly in ground flora normally associated with ancient woodland. A mean of 0.42 woody species per 30-m length of hedgerow was lost in 27 years. Contrary to a priori expectation, there was no suggestion that damage was greater in the farmed section. These results highlight that zero management is not an appropriate option for maintaining the floral diversity of species rich and ancient hedgerows. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The past decade has been a dynamic one for biodiversity offsetting policy. Efforts to incorporate offsetting into the Convention on Biological Diversity as a compliance mechanism did not succeed. The expansion of offsetting outside of the Natura 2000 network in the European Union (EU), which looked all but inevitable in the early 2010s, was withdrawn in the face of unexpectedly strong opposition from environmental groups and the business sector. Highly publicised offsetting programmes in some EU countries have had mixed outcomes, and many observers describe offsetting as a failed policy. And yet four years of interviews and policy analysis in Brussels, Spain, and England suggest that reports of offsetting's death may be exaggerated. While the possibility of an overarching EU Directive aimed at harmonising offsetting policy and practice across the region's countries seems unlikely, in Spain, offsetting has returned to the national policy arena via adoption as an implementation tool within the national Green Infrastructure Strategy. Offsetting in England persists in a handful of counties as a locally situated development strategy, and seems to have returned at the national level despite its spectacular flame‐out in 2014. This is not, after all, a high‐profile failure of neoliberal environmental policy. Rather, we see offsetting's persistence as a result of policy refugia: the retreat to small but amenable jurisdictions where offsetting policies can wait out inclement policy conditions and then emerge to recolonise the policy landscape when conditions improve. Highly publicised offsetting programmes in some EU countries have had mixed outcomes, and many observers describe offsetting as a failed policy. However, our analysis of offset policy development in the EU, Spain, and England suggests that offsetting has not failed but persists as a result of policy refugia: it has retreated to small but amenable jurisdictions from which it can emerge to recolonise the policy landscape as conditions improve. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lowland multiple-channel rivers are characterised by floodplain-corridor heterogeneity, high ecological and heritage value, and can be in quasi-stable states. This holistic study of a surviving temperate zone example (Culm, UK) uses geomorphological mapping, 14C, direct sediment dating (OSL, fallout radionuclides), and palaeoecology. This reveals the evolution of a channel-floodplain system from an initial braided state in the Late Pleistocene to its late Holocene anastomosing state. After the Pleistocene-Holocene transition the reduced channel system incised into its braid-plain, only able to rework gravels locally due to reduced competence in relation to inherited bounding sediment calibre. This resulted in the creation of terrace islands, palaeochannels, and a stable anastomosing pattern dominated by channel junctions, bifurcations and palaeochannel intersections. Survey, coring and excavation reveal a persistence of mid-channel bars and riffles at channel junctions, and where channels crossed palaeochannel fills. In common with most other European lowland rivers this system evolves in the later Holocene due to both climate and catchment changes with a major hydrological critical transition in the mid-Holocene (c. 5300 BP). However, in the case of the Culm, the increase in fine sediment supply often seen in lowland catchments in the Middle-Late Holocene, occurred later, and was insufficient to convert the system to a single medium-low sinuosity channel-floodplain. This allowed the persistence of high heterogeneity and biodiversity (including the persistence of riffle beetles) as part of multiple-scales of non-uniformity. Indeed the pool-riffle persistence is an example of this system's non-uniformity, being due, at least in part, to the effects of previous channel history. This paper reveals why this river survived in a multichannel state, and by implication, why others did not. These results are being used in the bespoke eco-heritage management of the Culm, but could also inform the restoration of other former multi-channel lowland temperate river systems worldwide. • Anastomosing channel system in SW England in quasi-equilibrium due to co-occurrence of inherited boundary conditions with dynamic fluvial processes. • Temporal pattern of channel abandonments reflects climate late-Holocene climate change and late rise in fine-sediment supply. • Simple catchment model suggests that mid Holocene low discharge promoted lack of channel change and sedimentation. • Some riffles/mid channel bars formed by fluvial response to inherited floodplain features. • Persistence of complex channel pattern promoted high biodiversity including persistence of riffle beetle species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nature conservation is being challenged to address a global biodiversity crisis yet, despite areas of consensus, there remain disagreements over issues including natural capital approaches and rewilding. Delivering effective conservation strategies requires understanding clearly the different perspectives within conservation debates, how much they actually disagree, and why. This is particularly true in England, where new conservation policy frameworks are proposed following the UK's exit from the European Union. These include the 25 Year Environment Plan and associated Agriculture Act and Environment Bill, which commit to a 'natural capital' approach to conservation. This study uses Q Method to identify four contrasting perspectives among conservationists in England: 1. Management of Changing Nature, which emphasises formalised conservation management but accepts novelty and change; 2. Innovation in Nature, which favours a high degree of experimentalism, dynamism and uncertainty; 3. Protection of Threatened Nature, which prioritises preserving endangered ecosystems in their existing form; and 4. Re-establishment of Wild Nature, which favours separating humans from nature and 'letting nature go'. These findings clarify conservation discourse in England. In particular, they reveal resistance to natural capital approaches and apparent acceptance of rewilding. This analysis provides guidance for conservation leaders seeking to implement strategies like the UK's 25 Year Environment Plan, including suggestions for mitigating contentious features of natural capital approaches. By clarifying conservationists' different perspectives, this paper aims to increase understanding and common ground between them, as they pursue their shared goal of addressing the biodiversity crisis. • Q Method is used to identify four perspectives among conservationists in England. • The perspectives differ on issues including 'natural capital' approaches. • This presents challenges for implementing strategies including the 25YEP. • Suggestions are presented for mitigating conflict, including on 'natural capital.' [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evidence suggests that the restoration of plant diversity in grasslands not only brings benefits for biodiversity conservation, but also the delivery of ecosystem services. While biodiversity‐function experiments show that greater plant diversity increases resistance of plant productivity to climate extremes, it is not known whether real‐world management options for grassland restoration likewise stabilize ecosystem responses to extreme climate events.We used a long‐term (23 year) field experiment in northern England to test the hypothesis that management aimed at biodiversity restoration increases the resistance and recovery of ecosystem carbon (C) fluxes to short‐term summer drought. This was tested by measuring plant, soil and microbial responses to a simulated drought in experimental grassland plots where fertilizer application and seed addition have been managed to enhance plant species diversity.The cessation of fertilizer application brought about small increases in plant species richness. Additionally, cessation of fertilizer application reduced overall plant productivity and promoted hemi‐parasitic plants at the expense of grasses and forbs.Resistance of CO2 fluxes to drought, measured as ecosystem respiration, was greater in non‐fertilized plots, as lower plant biomass reduced water demand, likely aided by proportionally more hemi‐parasitic plants further reducing plant biomass. Additionally, legumes increased under drought, thereby contributing to overall resistance of plant productivity.Recovery of soil microbial C and nitrogen was more rapid after rewetting than soil microbial community composition, irrespective of restoration treatment, suggesting high resilience of soil microbial communities to drought.Synthesis and applications. This study shows that while grassland diversity restoration management increases the resistance of carbon fluxes to drought, it also reduces agricultural yields, revealing a trade‐off for land managers. Furthermore legumes, promoted through long‐term restoration treatments, can help to maintain plant community productivity under drought by increasing their biomass. As such, grassland management strategies not only have consequences for ecosystem processes, but also the capacity to withstand extreme weather events. This study shows that while grassland diversity restoration management increases the resistance of carbon fluxes to drought, it also reduces agricultural yields, revealing a trade‐off for land managers. Furthermore legumes, promoted through long‐term restoration treatments, can help to maintain plant community productivity under drought by increasing their biomass. As such, grassland management strategies not only have consequences for ecosystem processes, but also the capacity to withstand extreme weather events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Selective insecticides have largely displaced broad‐spectrum products on cultivated hops, allowing a resurgence of historic pests and new ones to arise.The present study reports the incidence of 30 insect species from four insect Orders and 14 Families feeding on aphid susceptible and/or aphid‐resistant low trellis hop cultivars in south‐east England and at three West Midland sites. Three are Kent Red Data Book species [Adoxophyes orana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), Hypena rostralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Psylliodes attenuatus (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)] and three are DEFRA biodiversity action plan priority insects [Acronicta rumicis, Melanchra persicariae (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Spilosoma lubricipedia (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)].Six common lepidopteran species severely damaged hop cones (Adoxophyes orana, Autographa gamma, Epiphyas postvittana, Eupitheca assimilata, Mamestra brassicae and S. lubricipedia), whereas Biston betularia, H. rostralis, Melanchra persicariae and Phlogophora meticulosa did not. European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) feeding on hops in Kent are the so‐called E‐pherotype.Lygocoris pabulinus (Hemiptera: Miridae) caged on developing flowering lateral shoots reduced numbers of developing hop cones by 38% and cone weight by 42%, whereas Liocoris tripustulatus caused no losses.Companion plants in the drive alleys between rows of hops reduced the incidences of L. tripustulatus and S. lubricipedia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Partitioning biodiversity change spatially and temporally is required for effective management, both to determine whether action is required and whether it should be applied at a regional level or targeted more locally. As biodiversity is a multifaceted concept, comparative analyses of different indices, focussing on different components of biodiversity change (evenness vs. abundance), give better information than a single headline index., We model changes in the spatial and temporal distribution of British breeding birds using generalized additive models applied to count data collected between 1994 and 2011. Abundance estimates, accounting for differences in detectability, are then used in community-specific (farmland and woodland) biodiversity indices. Temporal trends in biodiversity, and change points in those trends, are assessed at different spatial scales. The geometric mean of relative abundance, a headline indicator of biodiversity change, is assessed together with a goodness-of-fit evenness measure focussing separately on the rare and common species in the communities., Our analysis reveals predominantly declining trends in biodiversity indices for farmland and woodland bird communities in southern and eastern England, perhaps signalling environmental deterioration in this part of the country. Conversely, our results also show generally more positive trends in the north of Britain, consistent with north-south gradient expectations from the effects of climate change. We also reveal predominantly positive changes in evenness for the common species and negative changes in evenness for the rarer species in the communities, consistent with previously documented homogenization in bird communities., Synthesis and applications. Bird populations are seen as good indicators of ecosystem health, and trends for different communities can be indicative of wider biodiversity changes within their respective habitats. However, temporal trends in biodiversity at the national level may miss opposing trends occurring at different locations within the nation. We develop methods that allow assessment of how temporal trends vary spatially and whether these trends differ for the rare and common species in the respective communities. Our methods may be used to test hypotheses about the processes that generate the trends. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To manage anthropogenic environmental change for the benefit of biodiversity, we must improve our understanding of the complex relationships between organisms and their environment. We have developed multiscale habitat suitability models ( HSMs) for bats, a mobile group of mammals, for a geographically varied region of the UK. We ask whether the models have sufficient accuracy to contribute to informed decision-making in habitat management and in minimizing the impact of climate change and human infrastructural development., We used acoustic surveys supplemented by catching to gather presence data for eight species from 30 sites across the south of the Lake District National Park in NW England. Species were identified by manual and automated extraction and analysis of echolocation calls. Fine-resolution (50 and 100 m) habitat maps were generated at twelve spatial scales by calculating the variables across squares of increasing size, from 100 to 6000 m, around each focal 50 or 100 m square. Presence-only HSM software, Max Ent, was used to determine the predictive power of each habitat variable at each scale. Multiscale models included data for each variable at the scale at which it had the strongest relationship with the presence of each species., The best multiscale models were selected using fivefold cross-validation, with backwards, stepwise variable removal, whilst minimizing residual spatial autocorrelation and sampling bias. Further tests with independent field data indicated good model transferability across the entire National Park., Foraging bats were generally most strongly associated with variables measured at small spatial scales and distance measures. However, each species responded differently across the range of scales, and strong associations were also found at the largest scale of analysis (6000 m)., Synthesis and applications. The best models for determining habitat suitability had few variables, making them easy to interpret and use in practical conservation planning. The approach is applicable to any taxa for which reliable presence records are available, providing insight into the potential impacts of land-use and environmental change. Maps identify areas of conservation concern, such as hot spots for diversity, rare or vulnerable species and potential or threatened network corridors, making them useful for ecological impact assessment of proposed developments, and to conservation managers planning habitat creation or improvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]