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The Turing Test is a method of testing whether a machine has human intelligence. A novel brain–computer interface (BCI) Turing Test was proposed in the BCI Controlled Robot Contest in World Robot Contest 2022. Contestants developed algorithms that can distinguish if an instruction is issued by a human. Participants collaborated with an electroencephalogram-based BCI to play a soccer game in a virtual scenario. Participants were asked to perform steady-state visual evoked potential (SSVEP) tasks or motor imagery (MI) tasks to control the robots or be in an idle state to mimic the system giving instructions on behalf of the participants. Several algorithms proposed in this competition are developed based on the concept that the idle state is a category in multiclass classification problems. This paper details the algorithms of the top five teams with the best performance in the final, lists the popular classification models and algorithms for MI and SSVEP, and discusses the effectiveness of each approach in improving classification performance and reducing the computation time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electroencephalography (EEG) signal classification is a crucial part in motor imagery brain–computer interface (BCI) system. Traditional supervised learning methods have performed well pleasing in EEG classification. Unfortunately, the unlabeled samples are easier to collect than labeled samples. In addition, recent studies have shown that it may degenerate performance of semi-supervised learning by exploiting unlabeled samples without selection. To address these issues, a novel semi-supervised broad learning system with transfer learning (TSS-BLS) is proposed in this paper. First, the pseudo-labels of unlabeled samples are obtained using the joint distribution adaptation algorithm. TSS-BLS is then constructed by an improved manifold regularization framework containing both labeled and pseudo-label information. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed TSS-BLS is evaluated on three BCI competition datasets and four benchmark datasets from UCI repository and compared with seven state-of-the-art algorithms, including ELM, SS-ELM, HELM, SVM, LapSVM, BLS and GSS-BLS. Experimental results show that the performance of TSS-BLS is superior to BLS and GSS-BLS on average. It is thereby shown that TSS-BLS is safe and efficient for EEG classification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In electroencephalography (EEG)-based affective brain–computer interfaces (aBCIs), there is a consensus that EEG features extracted from different frequency bands and channels have different abilities in emotion expression. Besides, EEG is so weak and non-stationary that easily causes distribution discrepancies for EEG data collected at different times; therefore, it is necessary to explore the affective activation patterns in cross-session emotion recognition. To address these two problems, we propose a self-weighted semi-supervised classification (SWSC) model in this article for joint EEG-based cross-session emotion recognition and affective activation patterns mining, whose merits include: 1) using both the labeled and unlabeled samples from different sessions for better capturing data characteristics; 2) introducing a self-weighted variable to learn the importance of EEG features adaptively and quantitatively; and 3) mining the activation patterns including the critical EEG frequency bands and channels automatically based on the learned self-weighted variable. Extensive experiments are conducted on the benchmark SEED_IV emotional dataset and SWSC obtained excellent average accuracies of 77.40%, 79.55%, and 81.52% in three cross-session emotion recognition tasks. Moreover, SWSC identifies that the Gamma frequency band contributes the most and the EEG channels in prefrontal, left/right temporal, and (central) parietal lobes are more important for cross-session emotion recognition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fatigue driving can easily lead to road traffic accidents and bring great harm to individuals and families. Recently, electroencephalography- (EEG-) based physiological and brain activities for fatigue detection have been increasingly investigated. However, how to find an effective method or model to timely and efficiently detect the mental states of drivers still remains a challenge. In this paper, we combine common spatial pattern (CSP) and propose a light-weighted classifier, LightFD, which is based on gradient boosting framework for EEG mental states identification. The comparable results with traditional classifiers, such as support vector machine (SVM), convolutional neural network (CNN), gated recurrent unit (GRU), and large margin nearest neighbor (LMNN), show that the proposed model could achieve better classification performance, as well as the decision efficiency. Furthermore, we also test and validate that LightFD has better transfer learning performance in EEG classification of driver mental states. In summary, our proposed LightFD classifier has better performance in real-time EEG mental state prediction, and it is expected to have broad application prospects in practical brain-computer interaction (BCI). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since Electroencephalogram (EEG) is resistant to camouflage and contains abundant neurophysiological information, it shows significant superiorities in objective emotion recognition, making EEG-based emotion recognition become a hot research field in brain-computer interface research. However, EEG is generally non-stationary and has a low signal-to-noise ratio, which is difficult to analyze. Inspired by the consensus that exploring a discriminative subspace representation usually helps to capture the semantic information of EEG data, in this paper we propose a Graph Adaptive Semi-supervised Discriminative Subspace Learning (GASDSL) model for EEG-based emotion recognition. GASDSL aims to explore a discriminative subspace in which the intra-class scatter decreases while the inter-class separability increases. The adaptive maximum entropy graph construction and semi-supervised subspace emotional state prediction are adopted to mediate the discriminative subspace learning. Extensive comparative studies on the SEED-IV and SEED-V datasets depict that 1) GASDSL achieved satisfactory emotion recognition accuracy compared with other semi-supervised learning models, 2) the discriminative abilities of both the learned maximum entropy graph and subspace are improved as the model iterates, and 3) the features extracted from the Gamma band, the left/right temporal, prefrontal, and (central) parietal lobes contributed more to emotion recognition based on the spatial-frequency pattern analysis results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The predicted pseudo-labels of samples were used to obtain subdomains in the target domain. • Differential Entropy (DE) features extracted from various frequency bands were represented as a set of characteristic matrixes. • Subdomain Associate Loop (SAL) was proposed as a domain adaptation loss criterion. Developing robust cross-subject or cross-session EEG-based affective models is a key issue in affective brain-computer interfaces, which often suffer from the individual differences and non-stationarity of EEG. Aiming at generalizing the affective model across subjects and sessions, this paper proposes a novel transfer learning strategy with Deep Subdomain Associate Adaptation Network (DSAAN) for EEG emotion recognition. Domain was divided into subdomains according to the sample labels, and the source domain use the true sample labels while the target domain use the predicted pseudo-labels. DSAAN was established as a transfer network by aligning the relevant subdomain distributions based on Subdomain Associate Loop (SAL). The adaptation of networks was achieved by minimizing the summation of source domain classification loss and SAL loss. For the purpose of verifying the generalization of DSAAN, we carried out the cross-session and cross-subject EEG emotion recognition experiments on benchmark SEED and DEAP. Compared with existing domain adaptation methods, the DSAAN achieved outstanding classification results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A brain–computer interface (BCI) based on motor imagery (MI) translates the subject’s motor intention into a control signal through classifying electroencephalogram (EEG) patterns of different imagination tasks, for example, hand movements. Auto-regression (AR) model is one of the popular methods to describe motor imagery patterns, which is widely used by researchers to resolve subject’s motor intention. In this paper, we use joint regression (JR) model and propose an algorithm by combining the coefficients of JR model and spectral powers at two specific frequencies to classify different MI patterns. The algorithm produces a classification accuracy of 90 % on the training data of one subject from BCI2003 Data set III and 80 % on the test data. The results are better than that by using AR model. We also apply the algorithm to MI tasks of one subject in our laboratory, and the classification accuracy can reach 97.86 % on the test data. The results demonstrate that the combination of JR model and spectral powers can achieve much higher accuracy for classification of MI tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emotion recognition has a wide range of potential applications in the real world. Among the emotion recognition data sources, electroencephalography (EEG) signals can record the neural activities across the human brain, providing us a reliable way to recognize the emotional states. Most of existing EEG-based emotion recognition studies directly concatenated features extracted from all EEG frequency bands for emotion classification. This way assumes that all frequency bands share the same importance by default; however, it cannot always obtain the optimal performance. In this paper, we present a novel multi-scale frequency bands ensemble learning (MSFBEL) method to perform emotion recognition from EEG signals. Concretely, we first re-organize all frequency bands into several local scales and one global scale. Then we train a base classifier on each scale. Finally we fuse the results of all scales by designing an adaptive weight learning method which automatically assigns larger weights to more important scales to further improve the performance. The proposed method is validated on two public data sets. For the "SEED IV" data set, MSFBEL achieves average accuracies of 82.75%, 87.87%, and 78.27% on the three sessions under the within-session experimental paradigm. For the "DEAP" data set, it obtains average accuracy of 74.22% for four-category classification under 5-fold cross validation. The experimental results demonstrate that the scale of frequency bands influences the emotion recognition rate, while the global scale that directly concatenating all frequency bands cannot always guarantee to obtain the best emotion recognition performance. Different scales provide complementary information to each other, and the proposed adaptive weight learning method can effectively fuse them to further enhance the performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]