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This paper offers a critique of elaboration theory (ET) based on recent cognitive research and offers suggestions for updating the model to reflect new knowledge. It begins by summarizing the basic strategies of this model for sequencing and organizing courses of instruction: (1) organizing structure; (2) simple-to-complex sequence; (3) sequencing guidelines; (4) summarizers; (5) synthesizers; (6) analogies; (7) cognitive strategy activators; and (8) learner control. It then discusses the notion of content structure and its epistemological assumptions, including the basic idea of content structure, how content is structured, content structure as organizing structure, and ill-structured domains. Discussions of sequencing issues address microworld design, functional context training, cognitive apprenticeships, cascaded problem sets, middle-out sequencing, sequencing for conceptual change, and internal reflection-in-action processes. Making content structure explicit is also discussed. The paper concludes with four recommendations: (1) deproceduralize the theory; (2) remove unnecessary design constraints; (3) base organization and sequencing decisions on learners' understandings as well as the logic of the subject matter; and (4) assume a more constructivist stance toward content structure and sequencing strategy. (89 references) (BBM)

As spinoffs of the current revolution in the cognitive and neurosciences, clinical neuropsychologists in the 21st century will be employing biological tests of intelligence and cognition which record individual differences in brain functions at the neuromolecular, neurophysiologic, and neurochemical levels. Assessment of patients will focus more on better use of still intact functions, as well as rehabilitating or bypassing impaired functions, than emphasizing diagnosis, as is the focus today. Better developed successors to today's scales for assessing personal competency and adaptive behavior, as well as overall quality of life, also will be in wide use in clinical settings. With more normal individuals, use of new generations of paper and pencil inventories as well as biological measures for assessing differences in interests, attitudes, personality styles, and predispositions is predicted. Two figures and one table illustrate the discussion, and a 63-item list of references is included. (Author/SLD)

This paper reviews the literature relative to the theory and practice of literature-based reading instruction, and seeks to bring clarity concerning the concept of literature-based reading instruction. The paper points out that from a theoretical point of view advocates of literature-based reading instruction draw upon the whole language philosophy, psycholinguistics, and cognitive psychology. It notes that proponents of literature-based reading instruction propose that reading should develop naturally and functionally. The paper concludes that instruction should be guided by the needs and interests of learners, beginning with real literature and meaningful print rather than with fragmented language or language constructed for instructional purposes. Although varied studies are reported that support a holistic literature-based approach to reading instruction, the paper suggests that more studies are needed relative to the implementation of literature-based reading programs. (Eighty-eight references are attached.) (PRA)

The plethora of different subfields in intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) are often difficult to integrate theoretically when analyzing how to design an intelligent tutor. Important principles of design are claimed by many subfields, including but not limited to: design, human-computer interaction, perceptual psychology, cognitive psychology, affective and motivation psychology, statistics, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, constructivist and situated cognition theories. Because these theories and methods sometimes address the same grain size and sometimes different grain sizes they may or may not conflict or be compatible and this has implications for ITS design. These issues of theoretical synthesis also have implications for the experimentation that is used by our various subfields to establish principles. Because our proposal allows the combination of multiple perspectives, it becomes apparent that the current "forward selection" method of theoretical progress might be limited. An alternative "backward elimination" experimental method is explained. Finally, we provide examples to illustrate how to build the bridges we propose. (Contains 1 table.) [This paper was published in: J. Kay & V. Aleven (Eds.), Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Intelligent Tutoring Systems (pp. 534-543). Pittsburgh, PA.]

The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between two contrasting research paradigms, namely, cognitive and experiential research, a significant literature review previously unaddressed. To achieve this objective, a conceptual description of three theoretical frameworks, Dual-Store model, Levels of Processing (LOP; drawn from cognitive psychology) and Students Approaches to Learning (SAL; drawn from experiential research) was undertaken. Then, the relationship between Dual Store Model and LOP and a relationship between SAL and LOP is explained using research in cognitive and educational fields. Articles for this review were retrieved from three electronic databases, viz., PsycINFO, ERIC and Google Scholar. These were searched using variations and Boolean connections of key terms, Dual-Store model, Levels of Processing, Students Approaches to Learning, Learning Strategies and literature review. Results suggest a significant amount of overlap between the concepts related to student learning within these theoretical frameworks and their contribution in understanding student's study processes. This review examines students' learning processes from an internal perspective. Future research examining study processes from the external perspective, such as investigating the influence of teaching methods and assessment methods on students learning processes could be beneficial. An appendix provides tabular data detailing the relationship between students' approaches to learning (SAL) and levels of processing (LOP) as empirically investigated by Entwistle and Waterston (1988). (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

Assumptions about knowledge construction, knowledge transmission and the nature of mathematics always underlie any teaching practice even if often unconsciously. In the paper we explain our theoretical assumptions about these cognitive and epistemological issues and derive from them a "model" of teacher. Finally we discuss why and how participation in a modelization process can constitute a suitable strategy for disciplinary and professional training of future teachers conforming to the model. (Contains 5 notes.) [For complete proceedings, see ED496848.]

Wisdom, as a form of cognitive functioning, includes different types of knowledge and values, and it seems that increasing the knowledge about the world and different experiences may facilitate their development. School system usually pays more attention to accumulation of knowledge, but little related to wisdom. In this study wisdom related-knowledge was explored in a sample of 63 university students. Two judges independently evaluated all the obtained responses regarding four life-situation problems (suicide, family, life planning and career) with five wisdom-related criteria. Results showed that in different life-situations students employed various criteria of wisdom to different extent: the most employed wisdom criterion was factual knowledge, followed by the procedural knowledge and lifespan contextualism, while value relativism and recognition of uncertainty occurred rarely. [For the complete Volume 14, Number 2 proceedings, see ED568089.]

We are delighted to welcome you to the International Psychological Applications Conference and Trends (InPACT) 2016, taking place in Lisbon, Portugal, from 30 of April to 2 of May, 2016. Psychology, nowadays, offers a large range of scientific fields where it can be applied. The goal of understanding individuals and groups (mental functions and behavioral standpoints), from this academic and practical scientific discipline, is aimed ultimately to benefit society. This International Conference seeks to provide some answers and explore the several areas within the Psychology field, new developments in studies and proposals for future scientific projects. The goal is to offer a worldwide connection between psychologists, researchers and lecturers, from a wide range of academic fields, interested in exploring and giving their contribution in psychological issues. The conference is a forum that connects and brings together academics, scholars, practitioners and others interested in a field that is fertile in new perspectives, ideas and knowledge. There is an extensive variety of contributors and presenters, which can supplement the view of the human essence and behavior, showing the impact of their different personal, academic and cultural experiences. This is, certainly, one of the reasons there are nationalities and cultures represented, inspiring multi-disciplinary collaborative links, fomenting intellectual encounter and development. InPACT 2016 received 332 submissions, from 37 different countries, reviewed by a double-blind process. Submissions were prepared to take form of Oral Presentations, Posters, Virtual Presentations and Workshops. It was accepted for presentation in the conference 96 submissions (29% acceptance rate). The conference also includes: (1) A keynote presentation from Prof. Dr. Richard Bentall (Institute of Psychology, Health & Society of the University of Liverpool, United Kingdom); (2) Three Special Talks, one from Emeritus Professor Carlos Amaral Dias (University of Coimbra, Director of Instituto Superior Miguel Torga, Vice-President of the Portuguese Association of Psychoanalysis and Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, Private practitioner of psychiatry and psychoanalysis, Portugal) and Prof. Clara Pracana (Full and Training member of the Portuguese Association of Psychoanalysis and Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, Portugal), another from Emeritus Professor Michael Wang (University of Leicester, United Kingdom), and a third one from Dr. Conceição Almeida (Founder of the Portuguese Association of Psychoanalysis and Psychoanalytical Psychotherapy, and Vice-President of the Board. Member of the Teaching Committee, Portugal); (3) An Invited Talk from Dr. Ana Vasconcelos (SAMS--Serviços de Assistência Médico-Social do Sindicato dos Bancários de Sul e Ilhas, founding member of the Portuguese Association of Psychoanalysis and Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, and member of NPA-Neuropshycanalysis Association, Portugal). Thus, we would like to express our gratitude to all our invitees. This volume is composed by the abstracts of the International Psychological Applications Conference and Trends (InPACT 2016), organized by the World Institute for Advanced Research and Science (W.I.A.R.S.). This conference addresses different categories inside Applied Psychology area and papers fit broadly into one of the named themes and sub-themes. To develop the conference program six main broad-ranging categories had been chosen, which also cover different interest areas: (1) In CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY: Emotions and related psychological processes; Assessment; Psychotherapy and counseling; Addictive behaviors; Eating disorders; Personality disorders; Quality of life and mental health; Communication within relationships; Services of mental health; and Psychopathology. (2) In EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: Language and cognitive processes; School environment and childhood disorders; Parenting and parenting related processes; Learning and technology; Psychology in schools; Intelligence and creativity; Motivation in classroom; Perspectives on teaching; Assessment and evaluation; and Individual differences in learning. (3) In SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: Cross-cultural dimensions of mental disorders; Employment issues and training; Organizational psychology; Psychology in politics and international issues; Social factors in adolescence and its development; Social anxiety and self-esteem; Immigration and social policy; Self-efficacy and identity development; Parenting and social support; and Addiction and stigmatization. (4) In LEGAL PSYCHOLOGY: Violence and trauma; Mass-media and aggression; Intra-familial violence; Juvenile delinquency; Aggressive behavior in childhood; Internet offending; Working with crime perpetrators; Forensic psychology; Violent risk assessment; and Law enforcement and stress. (5) In COGNITIVE AND EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: Perception, memory and attention; Decision making and problem-solving; Concept formation, reasoning and judgment; Language processing; Learning skills and education; Cognitive Neuroscience; Computer analogies and information processing (Artificial Intelligence and computer simulations); Social and cultural factors in the cognitive approach; Experimental methods, research and statistics; and Biopsychology. (6) In PSYCHOANALYSIS AND PSYCHOANALYTICAL PSYCHOTHERAPY: Psychoanalysis and psychology; The unconscious; The Oedipus complex; Psychoanalysis of children; Pathological mourning; Addictive personalities; Borderline organizations; Narcissistic personalities; Anxiety and phobias; Psychosis; Neuropsychoanalysis. The proceedings contain the results of the research and developments conducted by authors who focused on what they are passionate about: to promote growth in research methods intimately related to Psychology and its applications. It includes an extensive variety of contributors and presenters by sharing their different personal, academic and cultural experiences. Authors will be invited to publish extended contributions for a book to be published by inScience Press. We would like to express thanks to all the authors and participants, the members of the academic scientific committee, partners and, of course, to the organizing and administration team for making and putting this conference together. (Individual papers contain references.) [Abstract modified to meet ERIC guidelines.]

In the development of distance learning, advances in cognitive science merge with new technology to deliver instruction worldwide. However, one major difficulty in evaluating the efficacy of these tools is determining which elements of instruction truly lead to observed changes in student performance. As content, pedagogical methods, and media are intertwined, identifying the "active ingredients" is an essential element of facilitating training that is of high quality and minimizes development costs (Clark & Estes, 2000). To accurately evaluate applications in the field, researchers must be able to identify specific instructional components, make decisions on who and what will be subject to treatment, and accurately draw inferences regarding causal interactions without the control offered by a laboratory. The purpose of this paper is to briefly review current use of various research methods for evaluating instructional technologies, discuss previous solutions to balancing the conflicting demands of internal and external validity, and then to propose a new research design that achieves this goal in a manner compatible with many instructional technology applications.

The paper is focused on recent researches in neuroscience and developmental psychology regarding mathematical abilities of infants. A model that tries to explain these findings is developed. The model underlies the mental operations that could be systematically trained to generate efficient school learning. The model is built from a cognitive constructivist perspective on learning, is transferable into teaching-learning materials and its development has direct implications in structuring the curriculum and reorienting teaching practice. (Contains 1 footnote and 2 figures.) [For complete proceedings, see ED500860.]

With the increased demand and interest in electronic performance support systems (EPSS), particularly for supporting knowledge-based problems solving expertise in the information age (Gustafson, 2000; Dickelman, 2000; Kasvi & Vartiainen, 2000), instructional designers are facing a new challenge designing a system that could deliver (or transfer) expertise in a particular knowledge domain to learners/users. This paper conceptually elaborates the traditional concept of expert performance by Glaser et. al, and discusses a series of attributes for supporting or nurturing an environment for expertise. An overview of EPSS is given, then two areas of studies related to (advanced) EPSS design are given. One is expertise from cognitive psychology; the other is activity theory proposed by socio-culture psychology. Then, an alternative point of view from a standpoint of activity theory (social constructive theory) is taken to see how one (an instructional designer) might support an expertise in the areas of designing technology-based performance support systems. (Contains 67 references.) (Author/AEF)

Interest in mathematics learning that focuses on understanding, mathematical reasoning, and meaning-making underscores the need to develop ways of analyzing classrooms that foster certain types of learning. The goal of this paper is to show that the constructs of social and sociomathematical norms, which grew out of taking a symbolic interactionist perspective, provide a means to analyze aspects of explanation, justification, and argumentation in mathematics classrooms. (Contains 23 references.) (DDR)

This paper gives a brief introduction to a discipline called the cognitive science of mathematics. The theoretical background of the arguments is based on embodied cognition and findings in cognitive linguistics. It discusses Mathematical Idea Analysis, a set of techniques for studying implicit structures in mathematics. Particular attention is paid to everyday cognitive mechanisms such as image schemas and conceptual metaphors. Some implications for mathematics education are discussed. (Contains 36 references.) (DDR)

This paper focuses on some main distinctions that are necessary to analyze mathematical knowledge from a learning point of view and explain how many students come up against difficulties at each level of the curriculum. From a learning point of view, visualization cannot be used as an immediate and obvious support for understanding, even though it is the only relevant cognitive modality in mathematics. (Contains 21 references.) (DDR)

Via computational media, humans are entering a fifth stage of cognitive development leading to a virtual culture. This culture is seen as replacing the writing-based theoretic culture. Background information about the first four stages of mental evolution or cognitive development is provided. It is suggested that the evolutionary perspective needs to complement mathematics educators' other ways of understanding the learning and use of mathematics, particularly the semiotic side. (Contains 33 references.) (DDR)

The theoretical frameworks that have guided a researcher's focus on interest, the curricular and pedagogical implications of this research, and the possibilities for future research are described. The research project in question focuses on the effects of interest and importance on attention and learning of test material through a cognitive constructivist approach. Research has suggested that in texts on high interest topics, cognitive interest may play a stronger role than seductive details in creating interest and increasing the learning of important information. One possible way of using these findings in the classroom is to build curriculum around students' questions on topics that are of interest to them. Future research should value interest as an end in itself and not simply as a means to increased learning. Future studies should also examine the relationships among interest and such constructs as motivation and engagement. (Contains 27 references.) (SLD)

This paper discusses current developments in neuroscience and cognitive psychology that have significance for education and learning, and considers the effects of violent and emotion-laden media messages. Topics include: (1) the developing brain, including the roles of genetics, experience, metaphorical imagination, and culture; (2) the links among emotion, cognition, and body; (3) brain plasticity and the effect of culture; (4) the importance of a healthy school culture; (5) learning as a biological process; (6) the genetic cycle of learning; (7) the importance of serotonin for learning and memory; (8) the importance of time in learning; (9) the importance of homeostasis; (10) endorphins and addiction to media messages, including desensitization; (11) the importance of context and a healthy school culture; (12) a role for school and classroom management; and (13) a role for education and legislation. Together, education and legislation must work to foster maximum potential for the media and their messages, and, at the same time, minimize their adverse affects on the individual and society. (Contains 39 references.) (MES)

The lexical approach to teaching Russian grammar is explained, an instructional sequence is outlined, and a classroom study testing the effectiveness of the approach is reported. The lexical approach draws on research on cognitive psychology, second language acquisition theory, and research on learner language. Its bases in research and its principles are reviewed, and a sample instructional sequence designed to balance lexicon and grammar in Russian instruction is presented. In it, grammar is treated as part of the properties of the lexical items in question, the operation and native-language translations in the learner's mind is accepted as a psychological reality of language processing, and the main operational unit in teaching and learning is a phrase rather than a sentence. The six-stage approach includes: selecting and organizing appropriate material; identifying potential problems the student might experience in dealing with a specific target-language word, in relation to his native language; explaining and modeling new patterns; helping students learn from examples; use of pre-production exercises; and student production. A classroom experiment with 34 college-level Russian students found the approach to be effective in developing students' accuracy and fluency in the use of new grammar items. Contains 63 references. (MSE)

Sociocultural perspectives of education and educative processes occupy center stage in educational research and mathematics education, and this is a natural reaction to the recent dominance of reductionist psychological theories. This paper wants to make public an ongoing discussion related to the compatibility of the psychological and sociocultural perspectives. It also discusses how either theory can be reconceptualized to be more compatible with the other. (Contains 28 references.) (DDR)

Foundations are the forces that influence the minds of curriculum developers, which affect the content and structure of the curriculum. These forces are beliefs and orientations as well as conceptions of learning and the needs of society. Foundation of curriculum is rooted with the foundation of education. Historically, modern curriculum and education in Ethiopia is associated with traditional church education, mainly the Orthodox Church. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church curriculum is not well organized and written as a document and the duration of the program is not explicitly given; it depends only on the achievement of the individual and his motivation. The notion of education in Ethiopia is started in sixth century, the entrance of Christianity. The church continues to dominate the education system in Ethiopia until modern education was introduced in 1908. Many social problems forced the Emperor to think of modern education and hence he launched it with many resistances from the church. For many years the philosophy of church education influences modern education, the attitude of secretiveness that is keeping knowledge secret from others and rote memorization. However, the contents and purpose of education depends on the political ideology of the Emperors. Human beings require social interaction. This concept of social being leads to the view of living together. In Ethiopian culture there is no experience sharing rather there is secretes an individual cannot share his/her knowledge to others, because of not to be harmed by others. However development which implies quality education is the result of our interaction, our debates and shared vision. Contemporary educationalists argue that education must serve the purpose of social life that brings people together (social reconstructionism). The very important foundation for modern education in Ethiopia is sociology. Emperor Menelik II who introduce modern education is because of the sociological crisis the country felt at large. Of this economic issue takes largest account. The church school epistemology which is emphasizing on rote learning and memorization, affects the pedagogy of modern education in Ethiopia. Hence reform is required in the education system, from rote memorization to conceptual understanding, from modernism to post modernism.

This paper attempts to merge specific psychological theories of knowledge acquisition, the impact of pictures on cognitive processes, and theories of effective pedagogical approaches to foreign language learning, in order to assess commercially available software for its effectiveness, specific impact on learning, and classroom uses. The first section discusses the theoretical framework of the project, including three questions key to the exploration: (1) Can the potential effectiveness or use of these software programs be systematically evaluated based upon a psychology of language learning? (2) What is the psychological impact of the linking of text, sound, and pictures; does the ability to do so through the use of multimedia somehow make the computer a more potent tool for learning than ever before; and does the way the program links these elements further determine how they impact the learner? and (3) Is it possible to articulate an integrated use of these tools within a curriculum based upon the answers to these questions? The second section examines the following commercially available software packages, and considers how they may be impacting the learner: "Talk Now!,""Learnware,""The Rhythm of French,""Transparent Language,""The Rosetta Stone,""French Your Way,""Encuentros", and "A la rencontre de Philippe." Contains 22 references. (DLS)

This paper places the rise and decline of the progressive movement in education in the context of shifts in determinist-humanist philosophies, popular conceptions of social needs and demands of education, and genetic-cognitive trends in psychology. The following six theses are advanced to explain the rise and decline of the progressive curriculum and to suggest ways it can be adapted to restore relevance and credibility to the discourse that governs schools: (1) enlightenment humanists founded U.S. democracy and public education on a belief in free will, reason, the capacity to learn from others, and a disposition or duty to govern themselves wisely according to personally chosen principles; (2) turn of the century Progressives marginalized these humanist assumptions by synthesizing determinist philosophy, social Darwinist pseudo-science, and public demands for social engineering; (3) World War II caused paradigm shifts in American philosophy, popular priorities, and psychological theories; (4) subsequent curriculum theorists like Tyler included ideas of discipline and learning theory to meet rising demands for information and to fill the vacuum of heuristic ideas in the child centered curriculum of G. Hall and his followers; (5) progressives rejected many of the ideas of academics and cognitive psychologists and stagnated in the child-centered and individual-activity focus of the Great Society programs; and (6) curriculum theory may regain credibility and influence by synthesizing and applying cognate fields of disciplines and psychology. The curriculum field built by master planners before World War II did not adapt to postwar social demands, but the principle of building curriculum on a synthesis of different foundation fields is still a useful model for curriculum reform. (Contains 39 references.) (SLD)

In this paper, the following key questions will be examined. What is distinctive about cooperative learning, which makes it different from just groupwork? What has research found about the effectiveness of cooperative learning in promoting thinking? What conditions in cooperative learning help promote thinking? What theoretical perspectives support the "cooperation - thinking" link?

The importance of cognitions and attachment in family therapy has long been recognized but attachment to parental figures apparently does not affect the way that family events are cognitively processed. Given the large body of literature suggesting the importance of attachment and cognition, McCarthy speculated that the lack of significance for attachment may have been due to limitations in methodology (such as restricting samples to females and measuring events not necessarily relevant). The replication and extension of the McCarthy study, and an examination of attachment and gender on cognitive processes, are presented here. Participants, 254 college students, were grouped based on a percentile split of attachment scores. Results indicate that, contrary to the McCarthy study, appraisals of conflict with primary caregivers may be influenced by attachment to that person. The present study found that Roseman's (1990) model of appraisals can be used to explain the relationship between cognitive appraisals and emotional states with family-related events. Moreover, it is suggested that cognitive family therapists may need to take into account the effects of gender and attachment to different family members. Contains 12 references. (RJM)

A discussion of language testing addresses three questions: why good test construction seems to be increasingly difficult; what forces are shaping the practice of test construction; and what lies ahead in testing. It is proposed that practitioners are constantly redefining what "good" tests are, and those who develop tests are facing greater and more potentially conflicting demands, a common dilemma in the postmodern world. Test design is compared with architectural design in that design is shaped by purpose but must also meet criteria for optimality. In test design, purpose has become more ambitious and multifaceted; cognitive psychology and related disciplines have led to greater understanding of the nature of competence, and more sophisticated models of particular domains. In addition, validity models have become more comprehensive, and standards that testing is held to are becoming more rigorous. It is argued that test designers must learn more about differences in performance among test-takers and understand better the ways in which technology will affect testing. The importance of these factors in the testing of English-as-a-Second-Language competence is emphasized. (Contains 12 references.) (MSE)

This paper presents findings from a study that investigated students' understanding of quantum phenomena and focused on how students incorporate the ideas of quantum physics into their overall cognitive framework. The heuristic metaphor of the map is used to construct graphic representations of students' understanding of quantum physics. The relationships between students' conceptions of quantum phenomena at the level of the population group are investigated using a structured questionnaire and multivariate analytical techniques such as multidimensional scaling, cluster analysis, and factor analysis. Groupings of conceptions are identified and related to underlying interpretable dimensions. Contains 30 references. (Author/DDR)

This essay emphasizes a need for broad-minded constructivism which posits that individuals have coherent ways of understanding their world and that these understandings are structured and hierarchically organized. The meaning behind the term "co-construction," used in psychology, anthropology, sociology, and other disciplines, is analyzed. Three strategies for analyzing universal characteristics of moral development are outlined: (1) separating metaphysical assumptions from moral reasoning; (2) assessing the responses of all participants; and (3) separating, then integrating analyses of differing moral conceptions. The paper distinguishes between children's obligatory and discretionary moral judgments. (Contains 32 references.) (BGC)

This paper describes dissertation research using cognitive psychology in the design of museum exhibit labels in an effort to increase learning and memory in museum visitors. Three studies focused on factors affecting whether or not using a question (instead of a statement) as a title on a museum exhibit label would increase the visitor's memory of the information presented in the label text. In the experiments, labels accompanying the bird dioramas at the Bell Museum of Natural History at the University of Minnesota were rewritten. The college student subjects visited the museum at their leisure and were tested on the content of the experimental labels. Evidence was found that using questions from exhibit titles increased learning. (EH)

Adults differ from traditional-age college students in that they are self-directed, they have a rich bank of experiences upon which to draw in learning, they are ready to learn, and they value competence. Adults may learn equally well by performing different learning tasks. Second language learning activities and instructional materials can be adapted to meet these differing needs and characteristics, keeping in mind that they should bear a close and specific relationship to anticipated needs, provide frequent and clear attention to function as well as form, offer consistent communicative practice, exploit the "comprehension advantage," and systematically develop mental imagery to match verbal content. Exercises for functional language use can be developed easily by creating an information gap students must fill, e.g., asking students to come to a consensus about the most desirable breakfast. Typical textbook texts that require only comprehension or memorization can be enhanced by having students change the format, or summarize, analyze, or expand on the content. Seven tasks based on a single newspaper article and using two or more language skills are detailed. A checklist for teachers to use in evaluating the effectiveness of the classroom session is appended. (MSE)

The purpose of this research was to explore concepts about thinking that contribute to children's metacognitive experience during experimentation. Twenty-four randomly selected elementary school children in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, participated in five theory of mind tasks that assessed their: understanding of instantiation inference; understanding of causal and non-causal inference; understanding of causal and non-causal evidence; understanding of critical and non-critical evidence in a hypothesis testing format; and understanding of critical and non-critical evidence in a referential communication task. It was concluded that: children progress from unplanned to planned experimentation; the relationship between plans and procedures changes with grade level, so that early procedures do not depend on plans, but later procedures do; planning contrastive experiments does not depend on understanding causal inference; children's ability to direct and explain their own reasoning in science experimentation tasks was at the same level as their ability to affect and explain the beliefs of others in theory of mind tasks; and theory of mind appears to operate in two aspects of experimentation, in the productive phases it guides procedures by supporting the child's planning while in the critical phases it facilitates acceptance of disconfirming evidence and allows children to explain how their observations justify a particular inference. (JRH)

Test theory encompasses models and methods for drawing inferences about what students know and can do, cast in a framework of ideas from measurement, education, and psychology. The emerging paradigm of cognitive psychology prompts new considerations about collecting and interpreting evidence, suggesting alternative models for the nature, acquisition, and assessment of competence. Aspects of the models and methods that have been developed in the framework of standard test theory can be extended to the new discourse about student learning, but it is necessary to disentangle statistics from psychology, and to distinguish how we are reasoning from what we are reasoning about. Toward this end, the interplay of reasoning per se and the universe of discourse in which a problem is framed are discussed. Educational testing within alternative psychological paradigms and the inferential tasks entailed are considered. Implications of cognitive psychology for test theory are discussed and illustrated with examples from current projects. Five figures and six tables illustrate the discussion. (Contains 90 references.) (SLD)

It is proposed that research on neurological organization, cognitive psychology, and artificial intelligence can contribute to understanding the relationship between second language learning processes and academic achievement. Relevant research in these areas and in the field of neurolinguistics is reviewed, with several themes or topics highlighted: the threshold hypothesis of language proficiency; the search for alternatives to this theory; the "connectionist" approach to cognition; the link between learning and attention; the roles of information processing and the visual system in immersion second language learning; and interference effects of sociocultural factors. It is concluded that there are several advantages in trying to integrate emerging information from neuroscientific research, cognitive psychology, and artificial intelligence into educators' thinking about language learning problems: there is substantial research available; data are more precise than in most second language research; the perspective is physical, not behavioral, and information can be constructed from knowledge of the brain's inner workings; and artificially constructed ideas about learning processes can be de-constructed. Contains 55 references. (MSE)

With the exception of a few key writers, counselors largely ignore the benefits that Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Cognitive Psychology (CP) can bring to counseling. It is demonstrated that AI and CP can be integrated into the counseling literature. How AI and CP can offer new perspectives on information processing, cognition, and helping is focused upon. Some of the various computer simulations developed by the authors along with those programs available from software publishers, are reviewed. Such programs can provide a potent means of simulating various counseling related systems. Besides providing insights into clinical practice, such simulations can offer training and supervision experiences into CP studies of systems theory, emergent properties, and emotions. The rapid evolvement of AI and CP in the last few years means that the only major barrier to opening these fields to counseling applications is ignorance of their applicability and their availability. These technologies allow counselors to experience more empirical thought experimenting environments so that therapists can test these simulations against the real world of counseling. While these technologies will never replace more traditional research paradigms, they can become an invaluable adjunctive teaching and research tool for counseling professionals. (Contains 38 references.) (RJM)

In a previous paper the authors presented a model of assessing portfolios, the Cognitive Model for Assessing Portfolios (CMAP), as a lens to view, think about, and make decisions about portfolio projects. Two projects in which the CMAP has been used are described. One is an authentic assessment project in mathematics and science by the Educational Testing Service in Atlanta (Georgia), and the other is the reform of assessments in the Wyoming (Michigan) school district. The clear focus of the Atlanta project is on student outcomes. The entire project is systematically designed to produce outcomes that can be summarized across individuals and groups. The focus of the Michigan project is far more diverse, with generally defined outcomes and a more general assessment design. Atlanta represents a positivist and psychometric model of assessment while Wyoming (Michigan) represents a constructivist point of view, with the portfolio seen as a learning environment. Portfolio assessment is better suited to the constructivist model, in that efforts to apply the positivist model to portfolios invariably impose meanings that are different from those created by the learner. One figure and one table illustrate the comparison. (Contains 27 references.) (SLD)

Recent developments in cognitive psychology suggest models for knowledge and learning that often fall outside the realm of standard test theory. This paper concerns probability-based inference in terms of such models. The essential idea is to define a space of "student models"--simplified characterizations of students' knowledge, skill, or strategies, indexed by variables that signify their key aspects. From theory and data, one posits probabilities for the ways that students with different configurations in this space will solve problems, answer questions, and so on. Then the machinery of probability theory allows one to reason from observations of a student's actions to likely values of parameters in a student model. An approach using Bayesian inference networks is outlined. Basic ideas of structure and computation in inference networks are discussed and illustrated with an example from the domain of mixed-number subtraction. Six tables and 11 figures illustrate the discussion. (Contains 41 references.) (Author/SLD)

Students in higher education are faced with rapidly changing societal conditions. As the nature and structure of the workplace and the family have changed, the specific knowledge and skills people need for the future have become less predictable. Teachers can address these changing conditions by applying cognitive theory to learning and instructional delivery. Cognitive theory in this context implies that learning is a process of knowledge construction rather than knowledge absorption and storage. As applied to instruction, this approach should not focus on individual mental activity in isolation from the social and physical context, but recognize that skilled practical thinking incorporates features of the task environment (e.g., people, things, information) into the problem-solving system. Technical college students, who are generally older and who come to college with various experiential and environmental contexts, benefit from instructional designs which consider such contextual relationships. Of three models of instruction (i.e., instruction as transportation of knowledge, as application of algorithms, and as transfer of responsibility), the third approach is supported by cognitive theory. When instruction is viewed as a transfer of responsibility, the learner is led to assume independent responsibility for learning, and knowledge is constructed by learners using what they already know and have experienced. This model of instruction is effective with rapidly changing societal conditions since it supports the development of complex cognitive processes. (Contains 14 references.) (PAA)

Scholars in the field of communication theory and research have ignored and problematized the relationship between sign and meaning. This paper discusses the relationship in order to catalogue the different positions taken and to investigate the work that gets done from these positions. In the "brute sense data" or physicalist position, the character of the sign is responsible for encoding, decoding, and interpretation. The perceptionist position occupies a broad region, noting only certain discrepancies in the reception and interpretation of sensory information, speculating on perceptual realities only loosely connected to sensation. The constructionist draws the conclusion which the perceptionist resists: if perception intervenes between understanding and the phenomenal world then humans must be active participants in co-constructing the world they believe in. The hermeneuticist places meaning in the successful expression of power. For the physicalist and the perceptionist, signs have meanings independent of their creation; for the constructionist and hermeneutist there is nothing prior to semiotics in understanding and meaning is a cultural production. Two tables accompany the discussion and present the relationship between sign and meaning in the realms of sign production and interpretation for each of the four positions. (Contains 45 references.) (AEF)