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Intersectionality highlights that different aspects of individuals' identities are not independent of each other. Instead, they interact to create unique identities and experiences, which cannot be understood by analysing each identity dimension separately or in isolation from their social and historical contexts. Intersectional approaches in this way question the common classification of individuals into groups (male vs. female, immigrant vs. native etc.), which raises important implications for the policy-making process. In education, analyses with an intersectional lens have the potential to lead to better tailored and more effective policies and interventions related to participation, learning outcomes, students' attitudes towards the future, identification of needs, and socio-emotional well-being. Consequently, as elaborated in this paper, some countries have adjusted their policies in the areas of governance, resourcing, developing capacity, promoting school-level interventions and monitoring, to account for intersectionality. Gaps and challenges related to intersectional approaches are also highlighted.

Digital technologies can be used to support the inclusion of diverse student groups in education in a number of ways including enhancing accessibility of educational content, increasing personalisation and providing distance learning opportunities, as was the case during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, persistent digital inequalities can undermine digital equity and inclusion and equity and inclusion in education generally, particularly for the most disadvantaged students. This paper explores the themes of digital equity and inclusion, and maps some of the policies and practices adopted in OECD countries for the equitable and inclusive use of digital tools in education. It highlights the importance of inclusive design and implementation of digital technologies, as well as the need for education systems to focus on capacity building such as teacher training, as well as adequate resourcing of digital tools. It discusses advantages and disadvantages of different approaches, and concludes by highlighting research and policy gaps.

What makes diversity unifying in some settings but divisive in others? We examine how the mixing of ethnic groups in German schools affects intergroup cooperation and trust. We leverage the quasi-random assignment of students to classrooms within schools to obtain variation in the type of diversity that prevails in a peer group. We combine this with a large-scale, incentivized lab-in-field-experiment based on the investment game, allowing us to assess the in-group bias of native German students in their interactions with fellow natives (in-group) versus immigrants (out-group). We find in-group bias peaks in culturally polarized classrooms, where the native and immigrant groups are both large, but have different religious or language backgrounds. In contrast, in classrooms characterized by non-cultural polarization, fractionalization, or a native supermajority, there are significantly lower levels of own-group favoritism. In terms of mechanisms, we find empirical evidence that culturally polarized classrooms foster negative stereotypes about immigrants' trustworthiness and amplify taste-based discrimination, both of which are costly and lead to lower payouts. In contrast, accurate statistical discrimination is ruled out by design in our experiment. These findings suggest that extra efforts are needed to counteract low levels of inclusivity and trust in culturally polarized environments. [Funding for this report was provided by ifo Institute, University of Munich, University of St. Gallen, and University of Hamburg.]

A primary focus among colleges implementing student success reforms has been to increase overall rates of completing any credential and to reduce racial and socioeconomic equity gaps in such completion rates. The focus on general completion may overlook inequities in the type of program students complete, which is particularly significant given the wide variety of credentials offered at community colleges--from short-term certificates to transfer-oriented associate degrees that may lead to bachelor's and graduate degree programs--and the resulting variation in labor market returns among completers. Our study examines racial/ethnic stratification among community college students as they enter and progress through different programs leading to higher- and lower-paying jobs. Specifically, we develop a discrete-time survival analysis using longitudinal enrollment and transcript data on first-time-in-college, credential-seeking community college students from a state with more than 20 community colleges. We track student enrollment, completion, and transfer for up to nine years and examine when equity gaps in completion emerge. We also measure the student achievement of academic milestones (such as levels of credit accrual) along educational pathways that are associated with higher rates of credential completion and transfer over the long term. Results suggest that a significant gap in the likelihood of bachelor's degree completion between Black and White students emerges more episodically, while the gap between Hispanic and White students develops earlier and remains more consistent over time. Our results also suggest that, while all students generally benefit from the attainment of academic milestones such as gaining credit momentum or completing pre-transfer associate degrees, doing so disproportionately benefits Black and Hispanic students.

Since UNESCO's Salamanca Declaration in 1994, inclusive education has progressively attracted attention in international debates around education policy. While some evidence exists on the positive impact that inclusive education reforms can have on the academic and personal outcomes of diverse students -- and in particular of students with special education needs -- limited information is available on the economic sustainability of such reforms. Starting from the literature on the correlations between education and individuals' life outcomes, this paper reviews the existing evidence on the potential benefits and costs of inclusive education reforms. Specifically, the paper discusses the evidence on the shortcomings of current education settings for diverse groups of students -- with specific sections on students with special education needs; immigrant and refugee students; ethnic groups, national minorities and Indigenous peoples; gifted students; female and male students; and LGBTQI+ (which stands for 'lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer and intersex') students. It highlights the individual and societal costs deriving from the low academic, social and emotional outcomes of these students and the socio-economic costs these yield for societies. Where possible, the paper also presents evidence on the effects of inclusive education reforms on diverse student groups.

Competency-based education (CBE) is a rapidly growing movement of postsecondary and K-12 programs that allow learners to move ahead based on what they know and can do, rather than time spent in class. At the postsecondary level, CBE could be a pathway that helps many thousands of learners move from poverty to prosperity. This paper considers how CBE can be used to educate, equip, and empower learners who struggle in postsecondary learning programs because of who they are and where they live. Recommended starting points--places and programs--are provided throughout the paper to highlight where and how CBE providers can prioritize equity. The first section identifies three learner populations for CBE programs to prioritize: (1) learners of color; (2) adult learners who are unemployed or underemployed; and (3) adult learners with some postsecondary education but no credential. The second section details the types of programs CBE providers should offer, and the final section suggests some occupations and industries for which CBE programs should prepare their graduates.

In many countries, schools and classrooms are becoming increasingly diverse along a variety of dimensions, including migration; ethnic groups, national minorities and Indigenous peoples; gender; gender identity and sexual orientation; special education needs; and giftedness. To navigate this diversity, adopting a multidimensional and intersectional lens could help education systems promote equity and inclusion in education and foster the well-being and learning of all students. Such an approach could also support education systems in preparing all individuals so that they can engage with others in increasingly complex and diverse societies. To build equitable and inclusive education systems, analysing policy issues regarding governance arrangements, resourcing schemes, capacity building, school-level interventions, and monitoring and evaluation is key. The "Strength through Diversity: Education for Inclusive Societies" project seeks to help governments and education systems address diversity to achieve more equitable and inclusive education systems. This paper presents the project's theoretical and analytical framework.

We document patterns and trends in school segregation in North Carolina between 1998 and 2016, a period of rapid immigration in this racially diverse state. As in other states of the South, the period of court orders enforcing racial balance has given way not only to tacit acceptance of residentially based school segregation but also to policies that offer parents alternatives to traditional public schools. Most prominent among these alternatives in North Carolina are charter schools, which have expanded rapidly with the state's blessing. Following the prevailing practice of social scientists, we measure segregation by the degree of imbalance across schools, using counties and metropolitan areas as basic geographical units. We differentiate students according to their racial/ethnic group and also to their family income. We take into account all students including those in private schools, charter schools and traditional public schools. For the state as a whole, we find that white/nonwhite segregation increased over the period. Most of the increase was in urban areas. We also find that low-income students became more segregated from other students. Segregation measured either way increased sharply in Charlotte-Mecklenburg, which significantly changed its student assignment policy following a federal court order. Compared to metropolitan areas in other parts of the U.S., urban areas in the state have modest levels of segregation, because most districts are county-wide and thus large and diverse. We decompose metropolitan segregation, separating the portions due to private schools, charter schools, racial disparities between school districts, and racial disparities within districts. Charter schools and within-district disparities accounted for the increase in average segregation in metropolitan areas over the period. More generally, areas where school segregation increased the most tend to be large, growing, and marked by big increases in the share of students who are Hispanic.

This first report of charter school parents' perceptions based on nationally representative samples finds that charter parents, as compared with parents from district schools, are less likely to see serious problems at their children's school, report more extensive communications with the school, and are more satisfied with most aspects of the school. Charter parents are less satisfied than private-school parents, but report more communications with the school. The variation of parental perceptions within the private sector is less than in other sectors. Results are obtained from The Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of 2012, administered by the National Center of Education Statistics, and the 2016 "Education Next" Survey, designed by the Harvard Program on Education Policy and Governance. The following are appended: (1) Survey Items; (2) Ordered Logistic Regression Models; and (3) Leik's D Analysis.

In this study, I draw on longitudinal data for 1.1 million students in California to estimate the effects of community college credentials on students' earnings, as compared with students who are not awarded a credential. In contrast to much of the recent work on this subject, which assumed that the effects of credentials on students' earnings are constant over time, I estimate the effects of credentials on the rate of change in students' earnings and allow these effects to vary over time. I find significant earnings gains for all levels of credentials, including low-credit awards requiring fewer than six credits. Returns to associate degrees are the most durable over time, while returns to short- and long-term certificates and low-credit awards are strong initially but begin to flatten or decline by seven years after the award. I find substantial variability in returns by students' race/ethnicity and gender. Black men and Black women experience especially strong returns to associate degrees and long-term certificates, relative to other students of the same gender but different race/ethnicity, and men of all racial/ethnic groups experience much stronger returns to short-term certificates than do women. I also note wide variation by field of study in returns to credentials. The most consistent returns across levels of credentials are found in the biological sciences, engineering and industrial technologies, health, law, and public and protective services. Finally, I find compelling evidence of the need to distinguish returns after a credential is awarded from returns after a student has finished (or otherwise left) postsecondary education, as argued in recent work. Appendix A presents the author's approach to reconciling units of time. Appendix B lists the distribution of subfields of study for all credentials awarded in the CCC system from Fall 2002 through Summer 2013, by level and field of study.

There is mounting evidence of substantial "teacher quality gaps" (TQGs) between advantaged and disadvantaged students, but practically no empirical evidence about their history. We use longitudinal data on public school students, teachers, and schools from two states--North Carolina and Washington--to provide a descriptive history of the evolution of TQGs in these states. We find that TQGs exist in every year in each state and for all measures we consider of student disadvantage and teacher quality. But there is variation in the magnitudes and sources of TQGs over time, between the two states, and depending on the measure of student disadvantage and teacher quality.

Despite the international commitment to Roma social inclusion from 2005 onwards, the overall situation has not significantly changed. In education, important achievements have been reached, mainly in terms of access to primary. Yet, Roma students still lag behind. This paper maps policy initiatives for Roma inclusion in European education systems, analyses remaining challenges and explores policy perspectives. It first describes European countries' conceptualisation and categorisation of ethnic groups. In doing so, it differentiates colour-blind countries that prohibit diversity data and prioritise integrated approaches in policymaking, and countries that collect such data and use targeted approaches. This work then identifies initiatives aimed at improving Roma students' inclusion and recurrent challenges, such as segregation in education and anti-Gypsyism. The few evaluations available indicate that best practices are those that (1) combine mainstream and targeted approaches; (2) are community-based, with a genuine participation of Roma; (3) are conscious of cultural disparities; and (4) adopt an intercultural approach.

I provide a new, systematic profile of more than 18,000 homeless students in Michigan, utilizing rich administrative data from all test-taking students in grades 3-9 during the 2010-11, 2011-12 and 2012-13 school years. These data are part of a larger study of school choice and student mobility in that state. Homelessness is a condition found disproportionately away from suburban school districts. African American and Hispanic students are more frequently homeless and homeless students are almost universally impoverished. They are far more mobile between districts and zip codes than their non-homeless peers and are more likely to participate in inter-district school choice and charter schools. Finally, homeless students score far lower on state math and reading tests.

Decolonisation is rapidly becoming a familiar term in higher education institutions. Students and activist groups have helped decolonisation move onto the national agenda, backed by recent worldwide events surrounding the Black Lives Matter movement. Despite its newfound popularity, there is still substantial disagreement and misunderstanding about what 'decolonisation' actually entails. Using testimony from 16 interview respondents across academia, activism and policy, this report addresses the common misconceptions about decolonisation and recommends a series of practical steps towards its implementation. The recommendations include: (1) Get educated about decolonisation and end its conflation with equality, diversity and inclusion initiatives; (2) Reprioritise: decolonisation is both pedagogically necessary and academically rigorous; (3) Fund Black, Asian & Minority Ethnic (BAME) research; (4) Tackle discrimination, hostility and unconscious bias; and (5) Institutionalise decolonisation: create departmental roles and engage students. The findings of "Miseducation" demonstrate that decolonisation is both a vital and a beneficial next step for our universities. [Foreword written by Iyiola Solanke.]

Value-added data have become an increasingly common evaluation tool for schools and teachers. Many school districts have begun to adopt these methods and have released results publicly. In this paper, we use the unique public release of value-added data in Los Angeles to identify how this measure of school quality is capitalized into housing prices. Via difference-in-differences, we find no evidence of a response to either school or teacher value-added rank, even though school-zone boundary fixed-effects estimates indicate that test score levels are capitalized into home prices. Given ample evidence that this information was new to residents, widely dispersed, and easily available, our results suggest that people did not significantly value it on the margin. This has implications for the effectiveness of providing value-added information as a tool to help parents choose schools. Supplemental tables and a figure are appended.

This paper examines the returns to math courses relative to courses in other subjects for students in community college. Using matched college transcript and earnings data on over 80,000 students entering community college during the 2000s, we find that college-level math coursework has an indirect positive effect on award completion that is stronger than that of coursework in other subjects. In terms of direct effects, we find mixed evidence on the direct effect of enhanced math skills on earnings over other college-level skills. Overall, the combined direct and indirect effect appears to be adverse: compared with other courses or college pathways, more math coursework in community college is modestly associated with relatively lower earnings in later adulthood. However, this association is sensitive to modeling, and we do find heterogeneous results by gender, race/ethnicity, and initial college ability, as well as by math field and level. Two supplementary tables are appended.

In 1954, the United States Supreme Court decided "Brown v. Board of Education," a case that is known throughout the US and around the world for its strong statements about equality and about the importance of education. The years since the "Brown" decision have been filled with many changes in US law and society. From the perspective of civil rights advocates, many of those changes have resulted in great progress, but others have fallen far short of "Brown's" lofty ambitions. Today, if Americans who are committed to achieving more integrated schools and broader access to quality education look only inside our own law and our own borders, the situation is discouraging. At first glance, however, recent developments in Europe seem to pursue one road not taken by the US Supreme Court. In 2007, the European Court of Human Rights, the most influential international human rights court in the world, decided what some commentators have referred to as "Europe's Brown v. Board of Education." Informed by the contours of what constitutes illegal discrimination under different legal regimes' statutes and judge-made law, this working paper analyzes school desegregation liability and remedies available in the US and the EU (specifically the Czech Republic). Turning to the EU, the authors see how an international human rights court is redefining the way national remedies against discrimination are construed. Before beginning their analysis, the authors explore some similarities and differences between US and European conceptions of race and ethnicity.

This paper investigates how the precision and stability of a teacher's value-added estimate relates to the characteristics of the teacher's students. Using a large administrative data set and a variety of teacher value-added estimators, it finds that the stability over time of teacher value-added estimates can depend on the previous achievement level of a teacher's students. The differences are large in magnitude and statistically significant. The year-to-year stability level of teacher value-added estimates are typically 25% to more than 50% larger for teachers serving initially higher performing students compared to teachers with initially lower performing students. In addition, some differences are detected even when the number of student observations is artificially set to the same level and the data are pooled across two years to compute teacher value-added. Finally, the paper offers a policy simulation which demonstrates that teachers who face students with certain characteristics may be differentially likely to be the recipient of sanctions in a high stakes policy based on value-added estimates and more likely to see their estimates vary from year-to-year due to low stability.

In pursuit of enhanced employability of university graduates, along with their increased mobility in a rapidly globalizing economy, colleges and universities in the world today participate in regional alliances and partnerships in which shared targets with mutually recognized degrees and curricula are sought across boundaries through transnational higher education policies. The Bologna Process is certainly exemplified as one of the most important multilateral efforts in the recent history of higher education, in establishing such a system of quality assurance within the European Higher Education Area. Although the member states of the Bologna Process endeavor to meet the common benchmarks on the preset assessment criteria, the speed of policy implementation is found to widely vary across the participating countries. This paper attempts to identify the sources of discrepancies in achieving the common policy targets among the member states and explore in particular the extent to which varying stages of socio-economic as well as political development, along with indigenous ethnic and linguistic complexities, affect the robust progress of implementing multilateral higher education policies. Our findings generally suggest significant impacts of these indigenous factors.

We use a unique longitudinal sample of student teachers ("interns") from six Washington state teacher training institutions to investigate patterns of entry into the teaching workforce. Specifically, we estimate split population models that simultaneously estimate the impact of individual characteristics and student teaching experiences on the timing and probability of initial hiring as a public school teacher. Not surprisingly, we find that interns endorsed to teach in "difficult-to-staff" areas are more likely to be hired as teachers than interns endorsed in other areas. Younger interns, white interns, and interns who did their student teaching in suburban schools are also more likely to find a teaching job. Prospective teachers who do their internships at schools that have more teacher turnover are more likely to find employment, often at those schools. Finally, interns with higher credential exam scores are more likely to be hired by the school where they did their student teaching. Contrary to expectations, few of the measures of the quality or the experience of an intern's cooperating teacher are predictive of workforce entry in the expected direction.

This paper examines the effect of exposure to violent crime on students' standardized test performance among a sample of students in New York City public schools. To identify the effect of exposure to community violence on children's test scores, we compare students exposed to an incident of violent crime on their own blockface in the week prior to the exam to students exposed in the week after the exam. The results show that such exposure to violent crime reduces performance on English Language Arts assessments, and no effect on Math scores. The effect of exposure to violent crime is most pronounced among African Americans, and reduces the passing rates of black students by approximately 3 percentage points. Two appendices contain supplementary tables.

As has been known for some time now, the Hispanic population is projected to grow to 25% of the total United States population by 2050. In spite of this growth, substantial disparities exist between Hispanics and other ethnic groups in terms of bachelor's degree attainment (Llagas & Snyder, 2003). In response, there is a rapidly growing body of evidence to understand the role of student characteristics, perceptions, academic and social experiences and behaviors, both independently and collectively influence undergraduate Hispanic student engagements and/or academic outcomes (see review by Nora & Crisp, 2009). Developmental education is a key college experience assumed to open doors to economic and educational advancement among traditionally underrepresented groups by resolving barriers that impede access to a college degree (Bahr, 2010a). Hispanics are among the groups assumed to benefit from developmental education as the overrepresentation of Latino/s in remedial coursework is well documented (e.g., Bettinger & Long, 2005; Grimes & David, 1999; Penny, White, & William, 1998). However, there is a notable absence of empirical evidence documenting the role of remedial education in promoting success for Hispanic students. As such, the purpose of this white paper is to summarize what is currently known regarding Latino/a students who participate in developmental education at both two and four-year institutions. The authors begin by describing the characteristics of developmental education. Next, they provide a profile of characteristics and outcomes for Latino/a students who participate in remediation. A brief synthesis of the developmental education literature is given, providing emphasis to studies that have included or disaggregated findings for Latino/a students. They conclude with key recommendations for research, theory, and policy. (Contains 2 tables.) [Portions of this paper were presented by Crisp & Delgado at the conference of the Association for the Study of Higher Education (ASHE) in November, 2011.]

This paper reviews the new directions in institutional research on undergraduate racial/ethnic and socioeconomic diversity at the University of California, Berkeley. The use of SERU/UCUES and other web-based census surveys has made possible more detailed and extensive analysis of student diversity. Included is research on an expanded number of racial/ethnic groups and on multiracial students, the significance of the African American experience, implications of the new IPEDS racial/ethnic reporting requirements, and a closer examination of Pell Grant and first-generation college students. UCUES survey results are used to development a more comprehensive parental education and immigrant generation diversity (EID) typology that is then used to examine the interrelationships among student demographics and various facets of the undergraduate academic experience. Finally, an analysis of student accounts of the experience of diversity at Berkeley provides an example of how web-based census surveys afford new opportunities for cost-effective qualitative diversity research. (Contains 19 tables, 1 figure and 1 footnote.)

This working paper focuses on some of the issues and challenges faced in developing early childhood programmes to promote racial and ethnic diversity in societies characterised by deep divisions and/or conflict. The central argument of the paper is that the development, delivery and evaluation of such programmes need to be informed by three core values: they should be children's rights-based, outcomes-focused, and evidence-informed. Northern Ireland provides a useful case study because its people are emerging from 30 years of armed conflict. The ability to study the development of an early childhood programme aimed at promoting understanding and respect for ethnic diversity in such a context raises a number of fundamental issues of relevance to a wide range of other situations and contexts. Paul Connolly is Professor of Education and Director of the Centre for Effective Education at Queen's University Belfast, and the founding Co-Director of the Joint Learning Initiative on Children and Ethnic Diversity. A bibliography is included. (Contains 8 figures, 1 table and 9 footnotes.)

Using data linked across generations in the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, I estimate the relationship between exposure to volatile income during childhood and a set of socioeconomic outcomes in adulthood. The empirical framework is an augmented intergenerational income mobility model that includes controls for income volatility. I measure income volatility at the family level in two ways. First, instability as measured by squared deviations around a family-specific mean, and then as percent changes of 25 percent or more. Volatility enters the model both separately and interacted with income level. I find that family income instability during childhood has a small, positive association with high school dropout--one which appears driven by volatility among children from lower income households. Evidence suggests that volatility exposure generally has a minimal impact on intergenerational outcomes relative to permanent income.

Although the University of California, Berkeley has increased efforts to involve undergraduates in scientific research, little data exists regarding the number of undergraduate researchers. The University of California Undergraduate Experience Survey (UCUES) presents an opportunity to investigate the extent of undergraduate research involvement at the UC Berkeley. The data (N=5,347) show that the frequency of student participation in research under the direction of a faculty mentor varies significantly based on whether students are receiving course credit, pay, or working as a volunteer. Undergraduate research participation also varies between STEM majors and social science or humanities majors (non-STEM), with slightly more STEM majors participating. The data show that women are participating in STEM research opportunities at a lower rate than men but participating in non-STEM research opportunities at a higher rate than men. The data also show that Asian, Filipino, and Pacific Islanders (AFP students) account for 50% of all undergraduate researchers in STEM fields and 35% of all non-STEM researchers. However, the data also reveal that African American, Chicano-Latino, AFP, White, American Indian, and international students are all participating at almost the exact same rate in undergraduate research (between 24% and 27% by ethnic or racial category). Further analysis regarding the relationship between undergraduate research experience and the highest parental education level reached, as well as high school grade-point average and standardized test scores (SAT I and ACT) is presented. Implications for higher education administrators, education researchers, faculty mentors, and undergraduate students are discussed. (Contains 10 tables.)

This paper summarizes the literature and research on the relationships between culture and mathematics. Ethnomathematics examines the ways that different cultural groups use mathematics. Various definitions of ethnomathematics are presented, along with a framework covering areas of mathematics and mathematics education included in the term. Summaries and sample writings are offered for each of these areas: the cultural nature of mathematics, mathematical thought in different cultures, cultural history of mathematics, politics of mathematics, mathematics learning in different cultures, situated cognition including language and bilingualism, societal effects of mathematics education, and relationships between ethnomathematics and mathematics education. In addition, research is cited on the effects of culture on mathematics achievement, focusing on the transmission of cultural influences via popular media, parents, teachers, and students' own beliefs and attitudes. Examples of cultural influences on mathematics achievement are offered for Asian American, African American, Native American, and Hispanic students, as well as students from some foreign cultures. A research agenda for culture and mathematics is outlined that is relevant to understanding how mathematics is situated in a rural setting. (Contains 119 references.) (SV)

For people concerned with the future of diversity in the United States, the month of June 2003 was a momentous watershed. Nearly four decades earlier, President Lyndon B. Johnson first advocated affirmative action as a means to "seek not just freedom, but opportunity." June 2003 also saw the 25th anniversary of the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling on "Regents of the University of California v. Bakke," permitting race to be used as one criterion for admitting a diverse student body in higher education. It was likewise the eve of the seventh anniversary of the refusal of the Supreme Court to review the "Hopwood v. Texas" ruling by the Fifth District U.S. Court of Appeals, questioning educational diversity as a compelling state interest. Most urgently, the Supreme Court was preparing to issue a ruling on two University of Michigan admissions cases in "Gratz et al. v. Bollinger et al." and "Grutter v. Bollinger et al.," addressing whether diversity might be used as a factor for evaluating applicants. It was in this setting that over 50 executives from the public and nongovernmental sectors met on June 3, 2003, in the first Public Service Leadership Symposium organized by AED's Center for Leadership Development. The Ford Foundation-funded Symposium addressed the key issue of "Creating the Environment for Racial and Ethnic Diversity in the Public Service Workplace--A Challenge to Senior Leadership." The occasion also marked the publication of a timely report published by AED, "Toward Diversity in Public Service." Also funded by the Ford Foundation, this report chronicled the impact of the Public Policy and International Affairs (PPIA) Fellowship Program, an initiative over twenty years old designed to bring diversity to public service by enabling U.S. students of color to gain experience in the public service professions and receive financial support for master's degrees in public policy and international affairs.

The authors examine racial and ethnic differences in computer ownership and Internet usage using data from a survey conducted by the Nomura Research Institute in 2000. They focus on on-line shopping because few studies have examined racial and ethnic differences in e-commerce. The results indicate that blacks and Hispanics are less likely to own or use a computer than are non-Hispanic whites but are not less likely to shop on-line. Indeed, blacks appear to shop on-line more frequently and to spend more than non-Hispanic whites do. (Determinants of Computer Ownership and Usage in August 2000 CPS; and Descriptive Statistics for Socioeconomic Characteristics in Nomura Data Set are appended. Contains 2 footnotes and 6 tables.)