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Interest in international student identity has grown considerably over the last few years. In the context of international education, the emphasis on identity and the individual student may also be seen as an emerging response to the tendency of discussing international students and their identity-related experiences in homogenising ways. While there is considerable discussion about how international students' sense of self is affected by cultural differences in higher education, a theory of identity is not always in place. The purpose of this paper is to bring together three theoretical perspectives on identity that are designed to account for specific cultural, social, and linguistic influences on identity construction. These perspectives are examined with examples from data-based case studies. This paper identifies the unique affordances of each perspective while also highlighting their mutual role in challenging broad discourses that have unfavourably defined international student identity.

This paper analyses the coverage of Indigenous topics in K-12 education in British Columbia (BC) using curriculum documents and course enrolment. It focuses on curriculum documents published between 1995 and 2010 and mandated in public education from 1995 to 2019, and argues that Indigenous topics were marginalized in the curriculum overall. Motivated by decades of work by Indigenous leaders and educators to grapple with non-Indigenous people's prejudices, ignorance, and lack of understanding, the British Columbia Ministry of Education has increasingly recognized the importance of integrating Indigenous topics into core curricula and has offered all students Indigenous Studies course options. However, coverage remained marginalized in the core curriculum and recent curricular revisions have relied increasingly on teachers' voluntary integration of Indigenous topics and meaningful consultation with local Indigenous educators and communities, for which insufficient support and resources are provided by the Education Ministry. The paper explores challenges to the curriculum's ability to combat prejudice, eliminate discrimination and promote tolerance, understanding and good relations among Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples in the province.

Global Citizenship Education (GCE), in its noblest terms, is a commitment made by educators to provide students with opportunities to situate themselves as citizens within a global community. The author's presentation addressed the lay of the land for global citizenship and human rights education in early years spaces. Drawing upon the context of the author's experience educating through school-based, divisional, and provincial mandates, their work exposed that Manitoba educators face a dearth of resources for holistic citizenship education in early years classrooms. The discussion emphasized the need for a vibrant discourse on the placement of social justice resources in early years to inform and support educational experiences that move beyond acts of charity. Only through disruptive pedagogies that challenge structures of power and privilege are requisite spaces of interrogation created. This is crucial to the deliberative discourse necessary for education that moves beyond charity to actions of solidarity around equity and social justice -- locally, nationally, and globally. The ideological framework and lived experiences from which teachers work when establishing their own GCE theory and pedagogy affect the learning experiences that they offer to their students. These experiences, in turn, shape the actions that students take when they seek opportunities to help others. Therefore, it is necessary for educators to understand the potential action-oriented responses associated with various terms utilized in the field of global citizenship and rights-based instruction. Early years educators must follow teaching mandates to construct the foundational parameters through which students learn to situate themselves in relation to the world around them. Given the school, divisional, and provincial policies guiding early years' instruction, it is no wonder that early years educators are reluctant to engage in critical, deliberative dialogue with their students. [This article is a presentation based on the article "Unpacking the Call to Action in Early Years Education: Teaching Global Citizenship through a Critical Lens." For this article, see EJ1230481.]

In the winter term of 2016, Cape Breton University launched a revised version of a second year Mi'kmaw Studies course entitled Learning from the Knowledge Keepers of Mi'kmaki (MIKM 2701). This course was designed to be led by local Elders and Knowledge Keepers with facilitation support from university faculty. It was designed by course facilitators as a dual-mode course, with the opportunity for students to participate face-to-face and online, and the excitement it generated quickly went "viral." In this paper, we describe the experiences of the participants in the course through an analysis of their own reflections on the 13 weeks of instruction. The aim of this analysis is to share course design considerations for post-secondary institutions attempting to "Indigenize the academy" at a course level, but also to evaluate the process of co-learning as it was evidenced in the course as a means to address educational complexity and decolonization efforts in the classroom.

This paper presents the narratives of women who work in the university and their experiences of silencing and institutional containment. Through these narratives, I describe the ways in which the narrators deal with being silenced, and their attempts to establish their voice in personal, public and institutional realms. Many of the narratives are studies in how women challenge marginalization through their actions and by speaking out. The paper suggests that the stories are shaped by individual diversity and how these women experienced the politicization of difference. Individual voice and agency are mediated by personal, social, and spiritual connections within the past and present. For all of these women, their developing voice and agency were factors in their being able to challenge dominant institutional discourses. Feminist and critical race literature discuss the intersections between race and gender, the connections between race, gender and power, and how the relations of power affect knowledge. These considerations also raise the issues of patriarchy within the institution, and how this affects possibilities of change and empowerment. Race and gender stand out as primary categories and lenses from which these women tell their stories. (Contains 55 footnotes.)

Inspired by scholarly calls to focus more intently on the influence of context on leaders' construction and negotiation of identity, this paper draws on evidence from our Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) project in London, New York City and Toronto. Throughout the paper, we strive to illuminate how the city-based context influences how race/ethnicity is experienced and described. We use social identity theory, organisational fit and in-group prototypes to frame school leaders' explicit discuss race/ethnicity when reflecting on identity. We describe our data gathering process using our Professional Identity card-sort Tool, which guided leaders' reflections on identity. The analysis details how we extracted and interpreted evidence from leaders who were explicit about the interrelationship between their own personal racial/ethnic identification and its alignment or misalignment with their school-level communities. We explore how different city contexts influence leader experience of in-groups and out-groups and the related leadership challenges and opportunities. In conclusion, we reflect on the influence that structures, policies and communities have on how leaders experience identity and the possible implications for their work. We also explore the value of attending to potential context-based identity-driven experiences for school leader development and support.

Purpose: Ontario is the most ethnically diverse province in Canada. School educators cannot disregard the reality of diversity in all its senses. The question that directs the focus of this paper is: to what extent are leaders in Ontario formally prepared to lead schools that support the students of today? The paper aims to discuss this issue. Design/methodology/approach: This paper results from a document analysis of publicly available documents to investigate the current context in Ontario, Canada regarding the educational and social situation of new immigrants, immigration, refugees, and ethno-culturally diverse students. It includes an exploration of the training and information available for principals and vice principals in Ontario to support them in leading schools which serve increasingly diverse student bodies. This paper is also informed by interviews with 59 educational leaders from Ontario and the USA. Interviews centred around their experiences engaging in practices to support their diverse student populations. Findings: Results of the data analysis regarding the supports and training available to assist educational leaders in supporting the learning needs of diverse student populations demonstrate a serious lack of support. Very few actual resources exist for leaders, and most of those that do exist are connected to agencies outside of the education system, such as Settlement services. Research limitations/implications: Recent research investigating the relationship between identities and educational experience and teaching points to the importance of in-depth and targeted approaches to teacher preparation, and leadership preparation to help provide teachers and leaders with the knowledge, dispositions, and skills required to support all students in their academic and social development (Cochran Smith et al., 2009). This study confirms such findings. Given the current situation in Ontario and much of North America, there is a great need for leadership preparation programming, and school-level resources that provide educational leaders with the knowledge and skills to support all students in their academic and social development, but also in helping educational leaders to understand and address the systemic nature and forms of discrimination which their students face daily. Practical implications: With very few school boards requiring leaders to have a Masters' degree in Education, and none having stipulations regarding course content. This leaves educational leaders unprepared to deal with the reality of their situations, leading to the perpetuation of inequities in Ontario schools. Originality/value: Although sparse, previous research into the state of support and preparation for administrators and educators with regard to diverse student populations in Ontario revealed that little to no preparation or support exists (see e.g. Price, 2002). This study helps to fill that gap in existing research.

This article explores the perceptions of experiences and insights of four Alberta teachers on the understanding of diversity in the classrooms. The teachers in this multiple case study argue that the popular understanding of diversity, especially in schools, is often supported by American contextualized narrative of polarized racial views focusing on assumptions of contrasting 'whiteness' visible in race, culture and socio-economic status associated to ones' skin colour, for instance it recognizes dark-skinned students as diverse as opposed to teachers who are perceived simply as a large group of 'white, middle-class ladies'. Such conceptualization of diversity is problematic as its social-constructed understanding implies that teachers of European descent share a common 'Euro-centered' history, culture, and ethnicity, while Europe is in fact an ethnically, historically and culturally diverse continent. These assumptions have serious implications on teaching and learning as it directly reflects on teacher preparation programs, professional development practices and educational policies. The selective approach to diversity based on race and culture does a disservice to education's purpose as it over-focuses on visible aspects of differences among students while it disregards the universal needs of a community of learners in schools. This paper advocates for a human-centered understanding of diversity in schools, which seeks to understand diversity beyond the socially constructed borders surrounding race, culture and gender, often used to define teachers as simply 'white' in the context of diversity in Canada.

This paper examines how the idea of "race" is represented in high school Canadian history textbooks. It looks at textbooks authorized by the Province of Ontario between 1940 and 1960 and those authorized after 2000. It is argued in this paper that even though historical racisms have increasingly made their way into Canadian history textbooks as valid and important topics of study, and despite explicit efforts by those responsible for the production of these textbooks to clarify the meaning and consequences of racism, the idea of "race" has persisted in much the same way as it did centuries ago--as a take-for-granted fact of Nature tied to ideas about human type, lineage and heritage. Through problematic use of the term "race" and through a redundant emphasis on seemingly neutral categories such as origin, ethnicity and descent, the textbooks preoccupy themselves with human typology and articulate a sense that blood matters in the constitution and construction of the Canadian nation.

This paper is a conversation about growing an inclusive field of disability studies. The paper draws on data collected through an analysis of existing disability studies programmes in selected Canadian universities. The paper makes a case for including diverse perspectives, experiences, viewpoints, and voices in these programmes. In this work, I call for an interrogation of the normativity in the field of disability studies and for critical reflections and discussions about growing a diverse and inclusive field that pays attention to marginalised populations. There is a need to rethink the exclusionary nature of knowledge, space, bodies, and pedagogy in the field, which perpetuates Eurocentric culture, thoughts, and practices.

This paper is an exploration of the ways in which power is enacted and reproduced within the academy, as well as a consideration of possibilities for growth at both the personal and the institutional levels. The authors worked together in an academic setting. One of the authors is a tenured faculty member, and the other two authors were staff managing the graduate program and its practicum education stream. Using individual and collective auto-ethnography, as well as critical grounded theory approach to data collection and analysis, the authors suggest a theory of growth that is rooted in the margins of love, solidarity, and praxis.

In the province of Manitoba, Canada, there is a gap between the rhetoric of inclusive education and its practical implementation. In the absence of inclusive educational policies and guidelines, deficit-based approaches such as categorical labels for students who are deemed to have a severe emotional and behavioural disorder, segregated classrooms, and self-contained programs are prevalent and change is needed. This paper provides a critical perspective on how the paradigm of special education contributes to the social construction of disability; how, for Indigenous students, it too often positions behavioural difference as disability; and further, why this practice is systemically discriminatory. In our examination, we seek to expose the exclusion (Slee & Allen, 2001) that exists in nominally inclusive schools as a way to promote social change and redirect education toward truly inclusive practices. To that end, we suggest the following strategies that may reduce educational inequity for Indigenous students: (a) developing clearly articulated inclusive educational policies along with indicators of inclusivity; (b) reporting the number of Indigenous students who are identified as emotionally and behaviourally disordered, and segregated in self-contained settings; (c) establishing needs-based models of support at all levels (e.g., province, division, and school); (d) creating new narratives of assessment and pedagogy; and (e) reconceptualizing teachers' training. We hope that by critically examining the structures and processes of special education that, in fact, disable Indigenous students from educational success, inclusion might encompass more than a provincial philosophy and include transformative educational change.

This paper describes a research project that uses Pierre Bourdieu's concepts of habitus and cultural and social capital to penetrate how middle-class parents exercise influence and form positive relationships at the neighbourhood public school that serves various ethno-cultural groups of students. One group of white, economically privileged students have populated the school since its founding; the others are new, immigrant, and diverse in ethnicity, race, and immigrant status. The parents of the former group of children enjoy active involvement in the school and trusting relationships with teachers that involves their differentiation from and exclusion of the new immigrant group. While the paper affirms the importance of social class differences in parent involvement, it integrates additional dimensions of immigration status and ethnicity. (Contains 5 notes.)

To speak about separatism as a Canadian is to use a loaded term, one that invokes a significant yet historically specific sociocultural moment. Winners and losers emerged, and in the process, the word "separatism" received a bad rap. Consequently, as a white Canadian who still believes in at least the optimism of the multiculturalist project, the author is forced by Craig Womack's "Red on Red: Native American Literary Separatism" to face head-on his intuitions about separatism that have been more than a little colored by his Jewish-English-Quebecker roots. To speak of "literary separatism" is to first admit the failures of the media-dominated discourses on nationality and unity, and secondly to attempt to understand what sovereignty might really imply when it is transposed into the realm of the imagination. This is not to say that Womack's literary history is not political--it is certainly one of the most world-making and affirming criticisms that exists today; rather, Womack is able to build a Creek community that defines and evaluates itself internally by reimagining its own borders. The author writes this paper as a dialogue and as a further invitation to dialogue, for Womack's version of sovereignty reworks the lines of communication in positive and liberating ways. The author talks about the works of Craig Womack, his version of imaginative sovereignty and the relevance of literary history. (Contains 1 note.)

This paper explores strategies to help prepare pre-service teachers from a predominantly white, relatively isolated island in Atlantic Canada to teach for diversity. The paper proposes a modified framework for "teacher identity development" that pivots around three foci for enhancing teacher awareness and commitment to action: (1) relations of power and privilege; (2) youth culture and critical media literacy; (3) theory as an interpretive tool. These foci contribute to a "pedagogy of discomfort" through which white pre-service teachers confront their resistance to and complicity in the inequities that play themselves out in the school system. The ongoing capacity to sustain the emotional labour of confronting this discomfort is seen as critical to making a positive difference.

Public schools have historically been key sites where children learn of and adopt a common national identity. In states where multiculturalism plays a central role in the articulation of a national identity, schools actively recognize and support the diverse cultures of their students in fulfilling this function. Canada is a state where, via federal policy, multiculturalism has been identified as a fundamental element of the national ethos. Formal education has been a key area in which the government has implemented this policy. However, public education in Canada is also committed to secularism, and this has been a cause for resistance by diverse immigrant groups. This paper examines resistance among traditional Muslim groups to Toronto school policies and practices that reflect an avowedly secular orientation. It focuses on the experiences of one Muslim group in particular, Somali immigrants, and their encounters with school policies and practices that both supported and challenged their identities. In doing so, the paper exposes the schools as sites of countervailing policies and practices within which students must nonetheless forge new and meaningful identities. (Contains 11 notes.)

This paper explores the academic and psychosocial outcomes of immigrant students from the former Soviet Union (FSU) in an ethnic school in Toronto. Based on interviews with the principal, teachers, students and parents, together with questionnaire responses, the paper describes school programmes and practices that contribute to FSU immigrant students' high academic achievement, within the categories of curriculum, pedagogy, discipline policy and teacher-student relationships. The creation of this ethnic school suggests that Canada's educational system has not met the needs of the immigrant group. The paper seeks to further understanding of educating FSU immigrant students, and discusses the implications of ethnic schools for educating children in a multicultural society.

This paper explores how Canadian identity remains a white identity through an examination of the ways in which cultural diversity in Canada has been promoted and controlled in law and in practice through Jakeet Singh's (2004) notion of "culture-blind multiculturalism." It then turns to one instance of this kind of myopic cultural reproduction through an examination of the Alberta Education program of studies for elementary art. Within this latter review, the author indicates spaces within this very dated and culturally biased document that are available for real engagement with the diversity that is Canadian culture. Finally, the author suggests that James Tully's concept of dialogic multiculturalism might be used as a model for revisioning the ways we teach art in culturally diverse societies. Here, the author first turns to the Canadian Multiculturalism Act of 1985 and examines the Act itself to know what it is, and what it is not. (Contains 5 endnotes.)

A group of Latinas sat down one day around a wooden table on the third floor of a downtown Toronto community center, lit candles and began to write. They came together through a flier inviting all Latinas interested in writing. On the second meeting, they named themselves Lengua Latina (Latin Tongue). Lengua Latina is a structure established by women of diverse Latin American origins to answer a need for expression and community in Canada. As many as ten of them at any given time wrote and performed together for over six years. The 519 Church Street Community Centre was the foundation of their learning. The building and geography drew them together. How did they come to learn together in this building and on this land? How did their histories and identities motivate their travels? The author supposes they were fleeing as much as they were searching. They arrived as an answer to a call for Latina identity in Toronto. Each woman's journey was her own, but there were shared tendencies and conditions: a resistance to colonization, an insistence upon women's strength, and a liberation within queer life. (Contains 30 notes.)

This paper is aimed at understanding the language policy of Japanese ethnic churches and the legitimization of church member identities in the midst of dominant languages in Canada. While church members often construct Japanese ethnic Christian churches with 'grassroots' language policies that seem to legitimize their Japanese language and cultural identities and practices, their membership to their churches and their Christian faith often leads them to experiencing legitimization as Christians in solidarity with other Christians in the world (Takamizawa in "Torch Trinity J" 4(4):34-45, 2001). Using theoretical descriptions of language planning and policy, I discuss the scholarship of ethnic church studies, kokusaika and nihonjinron discourses, and groupism as described in frame theory (Nakane in "Japanese society." University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1970), as a framework to contextualize church member experiences and perceptions in the macro-, meso-, and micro-levels of language policy of Japanese ethnic churches in Canada. I use Critical Discourse Analysis (Fairclough in "Analysing discourse: textual analysis for social research." Routledge, London, 2003) to analyze relevant language policies and interview texts that reveal the perceptions of Japanese ethnic Christian church members from three churches in Western Canada.

In this commentary, Richard Schwier draws observations of what he believes are key issues in e-learning that come directly out of "A Review of e-Learning in Canada." However, much of the commentary is consumed by topics that haven't yet generated the volume or type of research necessary to allow the kind of compressed scrutiny that this type of review and meta analyses are built to analyze. Schwier begins by briefly discussing the notion of evidence-based decision making vs. evidence for whether using technology is a good or bad idea. Next, he notes that the review calls for increased attention to special needs students, academically advanced students, issues of gender, ethnicity/race/religion, and aboriginal education. In order to get at these thorny issues, Schwier suggests that narrative research can offer valuable insights. From here, he proceeds to discuss: what we value as learning outcomes, social software and the shifting responsibility for constructing learning environments, the role played by instructional designers as agents of social change, a repository of failure, a theoretical framework of what makes e-learning tick, and additional research questions.

Three Ontario (Canada) court cases involve challenges to educational regulations or policies resting on traditional assumptions about the religious nature and purpose of schooling. How these cases and two others help clarify the meaning of multiculturalism and whether the Ontario courts hold a particular theory of ethnic relations are discussed. (SLD)

In Quebec's French-language secondary schools, youth originating from South Asia have the highest dropout rate among all immigrant-origin students, whereas in the English sector, their coethnic peers have a more positive academic profile than third-plus-generation students. Using quantitative data, this paper aims to understand the difference in school performance between these two groups. Firstly, we examine their performance through three indicators: school delay, graduation, and dropout rates. Secondly, we contrast their profile through nine characteristics. Finally, we discuss the influence of each group's characteristics on graduation. The results reveal that the difference in performance is largely due to the characteristics of the French-sector students. The English-sector students' success is not significantly related to having English as mother tongue or as language spoken at home.

Canada has the highest level of immigration, with one in four Canadians being immigrants. And little is known about the ethnic differences and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk in the Canadian immigrant population. The high level of immigration has resulted in significant ethnic diversity in Canada, with each presenting a CVD risk profile unique to their ethnicity and country of birth. A better understanding of the ethnic differences in the risk of CVD could help navigate effective health promotion and targeted interventions, which can mitigate the burden of morbidity and mortality associated with the disease., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

In this article, we use interview data collected in a four-year longitudinal study of first-generation university students to answer the question: how might the ethnicity of first-generation students impact their university experiences? After briefly examining previous literature written on the educational achievement levels of ethnic-minority Canadians, specifically Asian-Canadians, and on first-generation students, we explain the concept of social capital and how it relates to ethnicity. The findings extracted from the interviews in this paper suggest that, although first-generation students lack general knowledge about university, their ethnic identities serve to ease their disadvantaged positions in university by serving as both bonding and bridging social capital in the form of relationships, peer groups and ethnic clubs.

In the course of educational expansion, student populations have become more diverse. This paper represents an international literature review on the topic of first-generation students (FGS), i.e. students whose parents have not obtained a higher education qualification. On the basis of more than 70 research articles and reports on FGS from several countries, we find that the focal points in FGS research concern their pre-college characteristics, mobility factors, decisions about institution, degree and subjects, FGS' experiences at university, and academic outcomes. Summarising the state of research on these topics, we point to two problems: (1) the international incommensurability of data on FGS due to differences in how FGS are defined and researched; (2) the depiction of FGS' problems as individual rather than structural problems. We recommend that structural changes such as making organisational structures in higher education institutions more transparent are in order instead of offering special support programmes only for FGS.

Theological educators are now fostering dialogues, projects, and practices that are designed to acknowledge the challenges and opportunities resulting from the shifting racial and ethnic demographic climate in the U.S. and Canada. As well-intentioned as these efforts are, most of the scholarship focuses on the contemporary experiences of underrepresented minorities, current institutional concerns, or practical classroom scenarios, leaving Scripture courses, which have long been the backbone of theological education, beyond the scope of critical engagement. In this article I argue that the existing scholarship on teaching and learning in general, and among biblical scholars in particular, does not adequately address the specific challenges that arise when questions about race and ethnicity are exposed in Scripture courses. Therefore, based on my own classroom experiences, I develop a pedagogy of (Emb)Racing the Bible that seeks to bridge the gap between theoretical readings and practical applications of ancient and contemporary discourses about race and ethnicity.

This paper presents a psychosocial analysis of interview data of three Canadian, middle-class, Jewish mothers engaged in processes and practices of "school choice". We consider how middle-class, white identity intersects with Jewish ethnicity. We also examine how commitments to Canadian ideals of multiculturalism sit in contradiction with investments in neo-liberal discourses of school performance and individual academic success and competition. Through analysis of narratives we illustrate how the mothers invoke binaries to differentiate self and others: self in the form of the middle-class, Jewish self; others in the form of the risky and dangerous "multicultural" body encountered in their children's primary school. We examine how contradictions are salient in the mothers' attempt to perform a morally legitimate selfhood in the face of competing commitments to individual attainment versus a collective good represented by ethnocultural diversity. Narratives reveal mothers' aspirational fantasies for their children that inform their class- and ethnic-based choices and decisions around schooling. School choice is thus thoroughly inflected with imperatives to preserve middle-classness and Jewish ethnic identity, and constituted through binary-making. Yet as we illustrate, these processes are not stable but subject to constant to psychical re-negotiation and flux. (Contains 1 note.)

This article is concerned with a specific type of hate speech: Holocaust denial. It is concerned with the expression of this idea by educators. Should we allow Holocaust deniers to teach in schools? This article attempts to answer this question through a close look at the Canadian experience. First, I will establish that Holocaust denial is a form of hate speech. Next, I will lay down the main premises of the argument and make some constructive distinctions that will guide our treatment of teachers who are Holocaust deniers. Finally, I will probe three cases--James Keegstra, Malcolm Ross, and Paul Fromm--and argue that hatemongers cannot assume the role of educators. (Contains 28 notes.)

Thirty years ago, Canada's population was largely homogeneous then. As such, there was no question of what teachers need to teach. However, now that Canada's population has diversified, teachers like the author, ask themselves what culture they need to represent in their class. In this article, the author describes how he lets his class deal with issues of identity and belonging through his English literature lessons. He also describes how his lessons allowed a Muslim girl to express her fear of being perceived as a terrorist through her poem.

In this speech, the author uses five moments of his own existence to speak to how he thinks the West conceptualizes and depicts Africa and Africans. This involves autobiography in a sense because he used his own life, but the discussion is not about him. It is about western conceptions and representations of Africans as reflected in the following five contextual moments, namely the present, his birth, his initial move to Canada, his more recent move to UBC (University of British Columbia), and the possible future. The author speaks mostly to how the academic disciplines in the west have contributed to western conceptions of Africa. He choses to play on Macbeth's soliloquy for the title of his talk to convey the idea that, in his view, Africa and Africans have been continuously mis-recognized and overdetermined by western academic discourses, seen not in reality, but as Africans of the Western mind, a false creation, proceeding from the collective historical and contemporary heat-prejudiced Eurocentric brain.

This paper focuses on the role of religion and ethnicity in providing social support for elderly Dutch Canadian Catholic and Calvinist parents and in establishing ethno-religious retirement and long-term care facilities. The data come from a 1995 survey of elderly Dutch Canadian immigrants (N=79) and their adult children (N=364) examining intra-ethnic differences in ethnic persistence and parent care. Continuity theory provides the theoretical framework for this study. In the last few decades, second generation Dutch Calvinist immigrants have been busy establishing retirement and long-term care facilities to look after the needs of the older Calvinist generation. Dutch Catholic immigrants have established very few retirement and nursing homes for their elderly members. Ethnic and religious differences influence the kind of support available to elderly Dutch Canadians.