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We studied the genetic structure of a red deer ( Cervus elaphus) population in 8 woodlands of northeastern Poland and 1 in western Belarus and compared it with the documented history of the population in the region. Red deer nearly went extinct in the region in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the mid-19th century, reintroductions began and continued until the mid-1960s. Animals were translocated from various sites in Poland and other European countries. We genotyped 303 individuals using 14 microsatellite loci and sequenced 253 individuals for a fragment of the control region (mitochondrial DNA [mtDNA]). The microsatellite analyses demonstrate that 3 genetically separate subpopulations exist, but 4 according to mtDNA. All haplotypes found in northeastern Poland are closely related to haplotypes from northern and northwestern Europe. The only individuals that could have originated from autochthonous red deer populations, rather than introductions, were found in Napiwoda Forest. The present regional genetic structure of the species is consistent with the known history of red deer translocations. Current patterns of genetic diversity in these populations are determined by the interaction of past human management and contemporary natural migrations. © 2012 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Question What changes in character and extent of land use have occurred during the last 200 yr in the Białowieża Primeval Forest ( BPF)? Are the landscape transformations described from the multi-temporal analysis of historical maps coherent with vegetation changes expressed by the previous palynological analyses? Location Białowieża Primeval Forest, Polish- Belarusian border. Methods We used five historical maps (from 1793 to 1936) and one digital land-use map (1999-2000) to quantify the landscape changes. Land-use types according to historical maps were digitized and georeferenced. The maps were then used for both comparing the extent of cover types in each time step and analysing the nature of change through transition matrices. The sequence of changes concerning the proportion of land-use types was then compared with classes of pollen, which were assumed to represent corresponding vegetation types. Results Most of the area (>70%) has been continuously covered with forest. In the period between 1793 and 1830, the forest declined, being the main donor to agricultural land and villages. In the 20th century, the trend was reversed. We found a significant correlation between the percentage of the main vegetation types derived from historical maps and the corresponding vegetation types, as indicated by pollen, with a mean time lag of 20 yr. Conclusion The BPF landscape has been quite stable throughout the last 200 yr, mainly due to the high continuity of forest cover. The results obtained from landscape analysis based on maps are coherent with pollen data collected in the same area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]