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We examine the role of universities in knowledge production and industrial change using historical evidence. Political shocks led to a profound pro-science shift in German universities around 1800. To study the consequences, we construct novel microdata. We find that invention and manufacturing developed similarly in cities closer to and farther from universities in the 1700s and shifted towards universities and accelerated in the early 1800s. The shift in manufacturing was strongest in new and high knowledge industries. After 1800, the adoption of mechanized technology and the number and share of firms winning international awards for innovation were higher near universities. [This paper was produced as part of the Centre's Growth Programme.]

This paper describes the current criticisms of academic research collaboration between the US and China and proposes a university-led initiative to address those concerns. The article begins with the assertion that bilateral research collaboration has historically benefitted both countries, citing cooperation in virology as an example. The paper continues with a discussion of the criticisms leveled by several US government agencies against the Chinese government, especially with regard to the Thousand Talents Program (TTP). A close examination of publicly available appointment letters under the TTP suggests that Chinese universities are given wide discretion when it comes to defining the specific terms of scholarly collaboration. Along with additional supporting arguments, the paper concludes that the most significant violations of commonly accepted research norms are owing to the behavior of individual Chinese institutions and are not directed by the TTP or the Chinese national government. The paper then suggests several steps for addressing these issues at the university level, beginning with a convening of campus leaders from both countries.

This paper summarises the literature that has linked education and economic growth. It begins with an overview of the key concepts in neoclassical and endogenous growth models, and discussion on how these have been tested in the data. Issues with respect to specification, the measurement of human capital and causality are discussed, together with studies that have sought to addresses these. A more recent and growing literature that explores the links between firm level human capital and productivity, including externalities, is then summarised. Beyond studies that link human capital to economic performance directly, there are numerous studies that have explore the relationships between human capital and the determinants of growth including investment, technology adoption and invention. Key findings from this literature are drawn out, together with a summary of the literature that has linked the activities of universities (key producers of both human capital and innovation) to their local economies. The paper concludes with discussion of policy implications stemming from this body of research, and promising areas for future research.

This Policy Paper aims at analysing the most important aspects of Public Responsibility, Financing and Governance of Higher Educations while seeking to formulate a students perspective on the state of play within the European Higher Education Area (EHEA). In doing so it touches upon the very foundation of how and in which socio-political environment educational systems and higher education institutions work nowadays. The European Students' Union (ESU) believes that open access to all levels of education is the cornerstone of a socially, culturally and democratically inclusive society, and a prerequisite for individual and societal development and well-being. ESU sees higher education as a human right, which is guaranteed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. How education is seen in society, how it is funded and how it is governed are tightly interlinked areas. This policy paper focuses on: (1) Public responsibility of higher education (fundamental values; institutional autonomy and academic freedom; academic integrity; intellectual property; education for sustainable development; human rights and democratic citizenship education; digitalization, artificial intelligence, learning analytics and privacy; commodification; partnerships between higher education institutions and industry; internships; and internationalisation and international trade); (2) Financing of higher education (financing of higher education; the funding gap; optimisation of funding of higher education institutions; performance based funding; and education free of tuition fees); and (3) Governance of higher education (students participation; working conditions of academic staff; committees and ombudsmans and leadership, intersectionality and training). [For the 2016 version, see ED587168.]

While state appropriations are the largest revenue source of the U.S. public university systems, they have declined significantly over the past several decades. Surprisingly, there is little empirical work on the effect of state appropriation cuts on the research productivity of public universities. Helping fill that gap, this paper is the first to examine the role that state appropriations play in public universities' patent production. The results suggest that state appropriation cuts have a negative impact on the number of approved patent applications from public research universities. Lower state appropriations are shown to lead to a reduction in research expenditures, especially wages and salaries paid to research staff.

This paper documents differences across higher-education courses in the coverage of frontier knowledge. Comparing the text of 1.7M syllabi and 20M academic articles, we construct the "education-innovation gap," a syllabus's relative proximity to old and new knowledge. We show that courses differ greatly in the extent to which they cover frontier knowledge. More selective and better funded schools, and those enrolling socio-economically advantaged students, teach more frontier knowledge. Instructors play a big role in shaping course content; research-active instructors teach more frontier knowledge. Students from schools teaching more frontier knowledge are more likely to complete a PhD, produce more patents, and earn more after graduation. [The Yale Tobin Center for Economic Policy, Yale Center for Research Computing, Yale University Library, and Yale International Center for Finance provided research support.]

Research universities throughout the world are part of a larger effort by nation-states to bolster science and technological innovation and compete economically. The US remains highly competitive as a source of High Tech (HT) innovation because of a number of market positions, many the result of long term investments in institutions such as research universities and in R&D funding, and more broadly influenced by a political culture that has tended to support entrepreneurs and risk taking. In essence, the US was the first mover in pursuing the nexus of science and economic policy. The following essay places universities within this larger political and policy environment by discussing market factors that have influenced knowledge accumulation and HT innovation in the US, their current saliency in the face of globalization, and the growing market position of competitors, such as the EU. The paper also provides observations on major US state-based HT initiatives intended to create or sustain Knowledge Based Economic Areas (KBEAs). Thirteen variables are used to assess the overall comparative ability for creating KBEAs, including the vitality of regional and national research universities, patterns of R&D investment, access to venture capital, intellectual property laws, educational attainment levels of the workforce, access and retention of global labor force, and political interest and forms of government support for promoting science and technology. Among the papers conclusions: There is a large disconnect in US policy related to promoting KBEAs and national competitiveness. Few policymakers, or even the higher education community are aware of stagnant and, in some states, real declines in higher education access and graduation rates relative to economic competitors, that the US is no longer a net importer of high tech goods, or that the US is no longer the number one destination for international students. Combined with global changes in the market for S&T talent, and the significant and increasingly successful effort of competitors to increase the educational attainment of their population, the US's HT advantage is eroding--although there remain a number of strengths, chiefly related to an entrepreneurial culture, more conducive tax advantages for business, a cadre of elite research universities, and the highest concentration of venture capital in the world. But even here, these advantages may wane over the next decade as the world becomes more economically, and educationally, competitive. The US generally lacks a broadly conceived strategy for retaining America's high tech advantage. "A Sample of the Frenzy of State Initiatives: 2007" is appended. (Contains 17 figures and 37 notes.) [A version of this working paper was presented at the OECD conference, "Globally Competitive, Locally Engaged: Higher Education and Regions" (Valencia, Spain, September 20, 2007).]

This paper uses panel regressions to investigate the effects of innovation policies and framework factors on business R&D intensity and patenting for a sample of 20 OECD countries over the period 1982- 2001. Both sets of factors are found to matter; the main determinants of innovativeness appear to be the availability of scientists and engineers, research conducted in the public sector (including universities), business-academic links, the degree of product market competition, a high level of financial development and access to foreign inventions. The effect of direct public financial support for business R&D is generally positive but modest, though it may larger for cash-constrained firms. Intellectual property rights appear to increase patenting significantly, but have little impact on R&D spending. Finally, the paper takes a closer look at the labour market for researchers, estimating jointly equations for employment and wages. Although the supply of scientists and engineers is eventually responsive to wage differentials, both with other professions and across countries, the evidence suggests that it may difficult to raise significantly the real amount of domestic R&D in the short run because the supply of researchers is relatively inelastic. (Wage Schedule and Reduced Form Coefficient Derivations are appended. Contains 93 footnotes, 4 figures, 1 box and 8 tables.)

Charles Vest gave the third of three Clark Kerr Lectures on the Role of Higher Education in Society on September 13, 2005 on the Berkeley campus. In public as well as private universities, resources provided by philanthropic individuals and foundations and by corporate research sponsors increasingly support the margin of university excellence, and increase the access of students to that excellence. The congruence of interests, goals, and expectations of philanthropists and corporate sponsors with those of universities must be carefully considered. The values of excellence and access frequently come into conflict as schools decide how to award student financial aid from gifts and endowments on the basis of merit or on the basis of financial need. Despite such interesting and important challenges, the generosity of individuals and foundations and the support of far-sighted corporations and industry consortia are central to maintaining and enhancing America's outstanding system of higher education. (Contains 16 footnotes.)

The development of digital content raises new issues as rapid technological developments challenge existing business models and government policies. This OECD study identifies and discusses six groups of business and public policy issues and illustrates these with existing and potential OECD Digital Content Strategies and Policies: (1) Innovation and Technology (Encouraging R&D and innovation in content and content-related networks, software and hardware; Building an environment conducive to content production, networks, and technological spillovers; Expanding venture capital financing and improving valuation of digital content; and Addressing skills, training, education and human resource development issues); (2) Value Chain and Business Model Issues (Encouraging non-discriminatory business and policy frameworks; Increasing competition and, where appropriate, co-ordination along value chains to develop new distribution and revenue models; Working to improve technology neutrality and consistent policy treatment of digital content across different, and in some cases converging, content delivery platforms; and Working out the role of support for new business and business expansion); (3) Enhancing the Infrastructure (Widening broadband coverage and high-quality access to infrastructure and applications; Building partnerships to address technological issues related to digital content, standards and interoperability; and Improving payment and micro-payment systems, electronic signatures, authentication, and development of international interoperability and portability of these infrastructures); (4) Business and Regulatory Environment (Adapting established regulatory frameworks to digital content value chains and business models; Protecting intellectual property and related issues; Working to improve digital rights management and development of new transparent business models; and Clarifying specific taxation treatment); (5) Supply and Use of Public Sector Information and Content (Digitising and distributing public sector information and improving access to public sector content; Building the role of governments as model suppliers in putting content online; Enhancing access to local content, diversity of content supply and use; and Expanding public demand for digital content in education, health, etc.); and (6) Conceptualisation, Classification and Measurement Issues (Improving the way digital content is measured.) (Contains 76 notes, 2 boxes, 3 figures and 2 tables.)

Digital collaborations are often stymied because institutions of higher education are increasingly divided between two cultures: the culture of knowledge and the culture of information. Campuses primarily remain institutions of knowledge, although practices of information acquisition can no longer be ignored, especially since the advent of networked computing and study with digital texts. Yet the traditional division of labor and the ownership of intellectual property within the academy are threatened by digital collaborations; and the claims of information theory, which is associated with epistemologies of uncertainty and probability, challenge conservative ideologies of university culture. As a result, policies for the development of hybrid instruction and digital archives are often dictated by "Virtualpolitik," or the Realpolitik of virtual institutions, in lieu of a long-term vision for meaningful institutional change. This paper examines four Internet-based initiatives designed to improve cross-campus teaching and learning in California public universities--MERLOT, CPR, UCWRITE, and SPIDER--and argues that effective programs with lasting legacies take advantage of a "bazaar" rather than a "cathedral" development model and incorporate meaningful "information literacy" objectives that go beyond the mastery of particular terms and tools. (Contains 73 notes and 3 figures.)

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), through the Education Statistics Services Institute, supported the research in this report to help frame future discussions about the use of video research techniques in educational settings. This paper addresses the context of technological, legal, and ethical change facing researchers who use video in their work, and examines how these influence the research and treatment of research subjects. A synopsis of past governing ethical and legal guidelines in social science research is provided along with an account of recent developments. The process of research planning and risk assessment is examined,including the use of informed consent and permissions. Also included are concerns surrounding the analysis and dissemination of data in networked telecommunications environments, as well as issues of intellectual property ownership. Some key suggestions for how education researchers using video in their work might proceed in this new context are also provided. Although much of what this paper outlines pertains to electronic data of any kind, including alphanumeric data, graphical data, and pictures, the collection and handling of data in each medium takes place within those legal and ethical boundaries that pertain to its particular type. In this paper, legal and ethical issues that pertain to video data are the primary focus. A listing of NCES Working Papers to Date is provided at the end of the document. (Contains 47 references.) (Author/AEF)

This report analyses the disclosure issues raised by technically-imposed restrictions on the use of digital content. It focuses on the application of copy control and digital rights management technologies in three areas: copy-protected CDs; online music, and DVD regional coding. In each of these areas, the report examines the kinds of restrictions that are commonly placed on usage of the products (for example, restrictions on making back-ups or private copies) and assesses the adequacy of the information that is provided to consumers concerning such restrictions. (A bibliography is included. Contains 28 footnotes and 3 figures.)

Written in English and French, this paper outlines current Canadian intellectual property legislation as it relates to Aboriginal people in Canada, and provides a general review of the implications and limitations of this legislation for protecting the traditional knowledge of Aboriginal people. An initial discussion of Aboriginal perspectives highlights the difference between sacred traditional knowledge, products, and services associated with traditional lifestyles of Aboriginal people, and innovations or new creations of an individual or an Aboriginal company. Not all traditional knowledge is considered to be intellectual property under Canadian law, therefore a web of strategies is suggested to better protect and control traditional Aboriginal knowledge. These strategies include community guidelines for researchers and businesses wanting access to traditional knowledge, codes of conduct, statutory options, and legal agreements and contracts. A section on intellectual property protection of Indigenous knowledge describes ownership, nature of rights, criteria for protection, scope of protection, duration, costs, enforcement, and international protection. A section on intellectual property rules applicable to Aboriginal contexts discusses copyrights, neighboring rights, industrial designs, trademarks, patents, trade secrets, plant breeders' rights, integrated circuit topographies, and licensing intellectual property. The conclusion points out the need for new techniques and laws that are more appropriate for protecting Aboriginal traditional knowledge and recommends educating non-Aboriginals to increase respect and understanding for Aboriginal traditional knowledge. Information sources presented include 17 federal, international, general, and Aboriginal Internet sources; 11 organizations; and 20 references. (TD)

Traditional Ojibway education is currently being delivered by eight First Nations communities on Manitoulin Island and the north shore of Lake Huron, in Ontario. Integration into the formal school system, with the exception of language programs, is not formally established. Elders and traditional teachers are only invited by individual teachers. Integration of the formal education system into the traditional Ojibway system also takes place, through field trips, albeit to a limited extent. Cultural knowledge is transmitted via one-to-one transmission, home-based learning, talking circles, community cultural events, workshops and conferences, and traditional Ojibway institution-based learning. Traditional educational approaches are profoundly different from those of the mainstream educational system. Wholistic (physical, mental, spiritual, emotional) growth and development of the person, experiential learning, oral tradition, and student-centeredness are key elements of the traditional approach. Further, and of vital importance, is the fact that education is grounded in spirituality. Western mainstream education has a narrower scope in that it emphasizes intellectual development to the exclusion of other dimensions. There are a number of concerns related to integrating informal Native education into the formal education system. These include research methodologies utilized; protection of cultural and intellectual property rights; and recognition of traditional indigenous knowledge, traditional teachers, and elders. (Contains 31 references.) (TD)

This paper contends that Maria Montessori had a negative effect on the diffusion of the Montessori method in the United States. Throughout her life, Montessori held to the belief that her thoughts and their expression remained her exclusive intellectual property. She therefore tried to exert as much control as possible over the training of teachers in her methods and the establishment of Montessori schools. The main flaw of this approach was that teachers versed in her method were invited to see themselves as independent contractors, not as teachers working with other educators in the community. After the second World War, Nancy McCormick Rambush and a number of educators in the United States who admired Montessori's educational methods but not her restrictive personal control established an American Montessori movement. This American Montessori movement supported: (1) the critical role of parents as first teachers; (2) American Montessori education as a plurality of possibilities, not as a single orthodox iteration of Maria Montessori's thought; and (3) a reevaluation of the process of transmitting Montessori's message, in which insights on the Montessori method in America are seen as coming from those who receive the massage, not those who send it. (MDM)

This paper studies the effects of university STEM education on innovation and labor market outcomes by exploiting a change in enrollment requirements in Italian STEM majors. University-level scientific education had two direct effects on the development of patents by students who had acquired a STEM degree. First, the policy changed the direction of their innovation. Second, it allowed these individuals to reach top positions within firms and be more involved in the innovation process. STEM degrees, however, also changed occupational sorting. Some higher-achieving individuals used STEM degrees to enter jobs that required university-level education, but did not focus on patenting. [Financial support was provided by the Stanford Europe Center and the Stanford Center for International Development.]

With inputs of labour and capital slowing, sustaining high growth rates in Korea will increasingly depend on total factor productivity gains, which are in turn driven to a large extent by innovation. While a number of Korean firms are at the world technology frontier in areas such as ICT, the diffusion of technology to lagging sectors is a priority to sustain growth. This paper recommends policies to improve the science and technology system by upgrading the R&D framework, in part through closer linkages between firms, universities and the government, and enhanced intellectual property right protection. Strengthened competition, particularly in the service sector, is needed to promote the diffusion of new technologies. Innovation also requires policies to ensure the supply of high-quality human capital through reforms of tertiary education. This requires a restructuring of the university system through increased competition and deregulation, as well as additional financial resources to improve quality. This Working Paper relates to the 2005 OECD Economic Survey of Korea (www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/korea). (A bibliography is included. Contains 34 footnotes, 12 figures, 5 boxes and 4 tables.)

This paper is the eighth in the Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges (AGB) biennial series summarizing federal and state public-policy issues affecting higher education. This document's list of top public-policy issues comprises a daunting inventory for boards and chief executives to consider. Security demands of the post-9/11 world will continue to require colleges and universities to function with more-intrusive federal restrictions. The following public policy issues are discussed in this document: (1) Homeland Security; (2) Scientific Research; (3) The Price of Tuition; (4) Participation of Low-Income Students; (5) Diminishing State Capacity for Setting Higher Education Policy; (6) The Culture Wars; (7) Economic and Workforce Development; (8) Accountability to the Public; (9) Ownership of Intellectual Property; and (10) Aftereffects of Sarbanes-Oxley.

This analysis aims at capturing current inventive activities in nanotechnologies based on the analysis of patent applications to the European Patent Office (EPO). Reported findings include: (1) Nanotechnology is a multifaceted technology, currently consisting of a set of technologies on the nanometre scale rather than a single technological field; (2) Most nanotechnologies, especially those related to Electronics and Optoelectronics, are seemingly realised by a top-down process, where nano-structures are developed through the improvement or advancement of existing technologies; (3) Another group of nanotechnologies, developed by a bottom-up process, has been particularly intense in the past decade, fuelled by scientific discoveries such as carbon nanotubes and fullerenes; and (4) Nanotechnology not only covers a wide range of technologies, but also underpins the development of many fields. Apart from a temporary stagnation in the early 1990s, nanotechnology patent applications to the EPO have been increasing since the 1980s, with the United States, the European Union and Japan having almost equal shares. Higher education and government sectors are an important source of knowledge in nanotechnology. The current development of nanotechnology relies strongly on existing technologies and accumulated scientific knowledge. (Contains 21 footnotes, 26 figures, 1 box and 6 tables.)