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Herein, we report the development of bitopic ligands aimed at targeting the orthosteric binding site (OBS) and a metastable binding site (MBS) within the same receptor unit. Previous molecular dynamics studies on ligand binding to the β 2 -adrenergic receptor (β 2 AR) suggested that ligands pause at transient, less-conserved MBSs. We envisioned that MBSs can be regarded as allosteric binding sites and targeted by homobivalent bitopic ligands linking two identical pharmacophores. Such ligands were designed based on docking of the antagonist ( S )-alprenolol into the OBS and an MBS and synthesized. Pharmacological characterization revealed ligands with similar potency and affinity, slightly increased β 2 /β 1 AR-selectivity, and/or substantially slower β 2 AR off-rates compared to ( S )-alprenolol. Truncated bitopic ligands suggested the major contribution of the metastable pharmacophore to be a hydrophobic interaction with the β 2 AR, while the linkers alone decreased the potency of the orthosteric fragment. Altogether, the study underlines the potential of targeting MBSs for improving the pharmacological profiles of ligands.

Optically pure epoxides are essential chiral precursors for the production of (S)-propranolol, (S)-alprenolol, and other β-adrenergic receptor blocking drugs. Although the enzymatic production of these bulky epoxides has proven difficult, here we report a method to effectively improve the activity of BmEH, an epoxide hydrolase from Bacillus megaterium ECU1001 toward α-naphthyl glycidyl ether, the precursor of (S)-propranolol, by eliminating the steric hindrance near the potential product-release site. Using X-ray crystallography, mass spectrum, and molecular dynamics calculations, we have identified an active tunnel for substrate access and product release of this enzyme. The crystal structures revealed that there is an independent product-release site in BmEH that was not included in other reported epoxide hydrolase structures. By alanine scanning, two mutants, F128A and M145A, targeted to expand the potential product-release site displayed 42 and 25 times higher activities toward α-naphthyl glycidyl ether than the wild-type enzyme, respectively. These results show great promise for structure-based rational design in improving the catalytic efficiency of industrial enzymes for bulky substrates.

The growing practice of exploiting noninvasive fluorescence-based techniques to study G protein-coupled receptor pharmacology at the single cell and single molecule level demands the availability of high-quality fluorescent ligands. To this end, this study evaluated a new series of red-emitting ligands for the human β-adrenoceptor family. Upon the basis of the orthosteric ligands propranolol, alprenolol, and pindolol, the synthesized linker-modified congeners were coupled to the commercially available fluorophore BODIPY 630/650-X. This yielded high-affinity β-adrenoceptor fluorescent ligands for both the propranolol and alprenolol derivatives; however, the pindolol-based products displayed lower affinity. A fluorescent diethylene glycol linked propranolol derivative (18a) had the highest affinity (log K(D) of -9.53 and -8.46 as an antagonist of functional β2- and β1-mediated responses, respectively). Imaging studies with this compound further confirmed that it can be employed to selectively label the human β2-adrenoceptor in single living cells, with receptor-associated binding prevented by preincubation with the nonfluorescent β2-selective antagonist 3-(isopropylamino)-1-[(7-methyl-4-indanyl)oxy]butan-2-ol (ICI 118551) ( J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol.1983, 5, 430-437. ).

Ocular delivery of alprenolol, a beta-adrenergic antagonist, by site-specific bioactivation of its methoxime analogue results in significant and prolonged decrease of the intraocular pressure in rabbits after topical administration. Alprenolone methoxime is stable in isotonic phosphate vehicle but undergoes enzymatic hydrolysis to the corresponding ketone in the eye. The ketone is then converted to alprenolol by a carbonyl reductase present in the iris-ciliary body. The benefit of this chemical delivery system approach includes the facile release of a potential antiglaucoma agent only at the site of the action; thus, unwanted systemic effects of the drug can be avoided.

The fluorescent beta-adrenergic receptor probe alprenolol-NBD was found to exhibit a high affinity (Kd 3.2 nM) and a low capacity (10 fmol/mg protein) for the beta 2-adrenergic receptor on living Chang liver cells but also a high affinity (Kd 320 nM) for non-beta-adrenergic receptor binding sites with a very high capacity (28,000 fmol/mg protein). Calculations are presented which make clear that less than 3% of the binding of alprenolol-NBD during visualization experiments is beta-adrenergic receptor related. Furthermore, it is shown that besides the downregulation of beta-adrenergic receptors during incubation with isoproterenol, the high-affinity non-beta-receptor binding sites are also deminishing during incubation with isoproterenol. Based on our findings it is concluded that the results of Henis et al. who claimed the visualization of the beta-adrenergic receptor population on Chang liver cells by alprenolol-NBD must be interpreted as an almost completely non-specific fluorescence.

Four new beta-adrenoceptor blocking agents carrying tyramine as the amino moiety were synthesized and the distribution of their I-125-tagged derivatives evaluated in rats. This distribution was compared with the distribution of various agonists and antagonists labeled with H-3 and C-14, and with the in vitro binding affinity of the new derivatives. A radioiodinated derivative of a cardioselective blocker, alprenolol, showed poor blood clearance and no cardiac selectivity. A derivative of another cardioselective blocker, practolol, showed a promising heart-to-blood ratio (ca. 19) and cardioselectivity with a heart-to-lung ratio of ca. 2. Two additional practolol analogs showed no improvement over the practolol derivative; because of the increased lipophilicity of these derivatives, blood clearance and cardioselectivity were diminished. An inverse correlation is suggested between the dissociation constant for the beta adrenoceptor in the lung and the heart-to-blood and heart-to-lung values. We conclude that polarity plays an important role in the blood clearance and cardioselectivity of these beta-adrenoceptor derivatives.

An affinity label for beta-adrenoceptors, N-(bromoacetyl)-N'-[3-(o-allylphenoxy)-2-hydroxypropyl]-1,8-dia min o-p-menthane, has been extensively used in the form of a mixture of four isomers. In the present study, all four isomers were isolated, their structures elucidated, and their interactions with beta-adrenoceptors characterized. The isomer with the aromatic (pharmacophore) group on carbon 1 of p-menthane and with the Z configuration (Z-1) predominates in the mixture and has the highest affinity for beta-adrenoceptors of rat heart (KD = 3 X 10(-8) M) and lungs (KD = 2 X 10(-8) M). This isomer acts as a ligand that binds irreversibly at the drug binding site of the receptor (i.e., after treatment and extensive washing of the membrane preparation, the concentration of the receptors is decreased in a dose-dependent manner), while binding characteristics of the remaining receptors are not changed. The corresponding E diastereomer (E-1) also binds irreversibly to the drug binding site of the receptor. The isomer with the aromatic group on carbon 8 and the Z configuration (Z-8) modifies the receptor noticeably only at higher concentrations and then on a site apparently different from the drug-binding site, i.e., affinity of receptors after the treatment and washing is changed. The corresponding E diastereomer (E-8) modified both the drug-binding and alternative binding site. The results suggest that there is some flexibility in the conformation of the beta-adrenoceptor that enables pairs of ligands, differing by axial or equatorial positions of critical groups, to alkylate the receptor in an analogous manner.