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Context. The William Herschel Telescope Enhanced Area Velocity Explorer (WEAVE) is a new, massively multiplexing spectrograph that allows us to collect about one thousand spectra over a 3 square degree field in one observation. The WEAVE Stellar Population Survey (WEAVE-StePS) in the next 5 years will exploit this new instrument to obtain high-S/N spectra for a magnitude-limited (IAB = 20.5) sample of ∼25 000 galaxies at moderate redshifts (z ≥ 0.3), providing insights into galaxy evolution in this as yet unexplored redshift range. Aims. We aim to test novel techniques for retrieving the key physical parameters of galaxies from WEAVE-StePS spectra using both photometric and spectroscopic (spectral indices) information for a range of noise levels and redshift values. Methods. We simulated ∼105 000 galaxy spectra assuming star formation histories with an exponentially declining star formation rate, covering a wide range of ages, stellar metallicities, specific star formation rates (sSFRs), and dust extinction values. We considered three redshifts (i.e. z = 0.3, 0.55, and 0.7), covering the redshift range that WEAVE-StePS will observe. We then evaluated the ability of the random forest and K-nearest neighbour algorithms to correctly predict the average age, metallicity, sSFR, dust attenuation, and time since the bulk of formation, assuming no measurement errors. We also checked how much the predictive ability deteriorates for different noise levels, with S/NI,obs = 10, 20, and 30, and at different redshifts. Finally, the retrieved sSFR was used to classify galaxies as part of the blue cloud, green valley, or red sequence. Results. We find that both the random forest and K-nearest neighbour algorithms accurately estimate the mass-weighted ages, u-band-weighted ages, and metallicities with low bias. The dispersion varies from 0.08–0.16 dex for age and 0.11–0.25 dex for metallicity, depending on the redshift and noise level. For dust attenuation, we find a similarly low bias and dispersion. For the sSFR, we find a very good constraining power for star-forming galaxies, log sSFR ≳ −11, where the bias is ∼0.01 dex and the dispersion is ∼0.10 dex. However, for more quiescent galaxies, with log sSFR ≲ −11, we find a higher bias, ranging from 0.61 to 0.86 dex, and a higher dispersion, ∼0.4 dex, depending on the noise level and redshift. In general, we find that the random forest algorithm outperforms the K-nearest neighbours. Finally, we find that the classification of galaxies as members of the green valley is successful across the different redshifts and S/Ns. Conclusions. We demonstrate that machine learning algorithms can accurately estimate the physical parameters of simulated galaxies for a WEAVE-StePS-like dataset, even at relatively low S/NI, obs = 10 per Å spectra with available ancillary photometric information. A more traditional approach, Bayesian inference, yields comparable results. The main advantage of using a machine learning algorithm is that, once trained, it requires considerably less time than other methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present new H- and K-band spectroscopy for the bulge of M31, taken with the LUCI spectrograph at the Large Binocular Telescope (LBT). We studied radial trends of CO absorption features (namely, CO1.58, CO1.60, CO1.64, CO1.66, CO1.68, CO2.30, CO2.32, and CO2.35) in the bulge of M31, out to a galactocentric distance of ∼100″ (∼380 pc). We find that most COs do not exhibit a strong radial gradient, despite the strong metallicity gradient inferred from the optical spectral range, except for CO1.64, showing a steep increase in the center. We compared the observed line strengths to predictions of different state-of-the-art stellar population models, including an updated version of EMILES models, which also uses the extended IRTF spectral library. The observed COs are close to models' predictions, but in some models they turn out to be underestimated. We find that the lack of radial gradients is due to the combination of increasing CO strength with metallicity and C abundance, and decreasing CO strength with IMF slope and O abundance. We speculate that the steep gradient of CO1.64 might be due to Na overabundance. Remarkably, we were able to fit, at the same time, optical indices and all the NIR COs (except for CO1.68), leaving abundance ratios (i.e., [C/Fe], [O/Fe], and [Mg/Fe]) as free-fitting parameters, imposing age and metallicity constraints from the optical spectral range, with no significant contribution from intermediate-age populations (∼1 Gyr-old). For the majority of the bulge, we find [Mg/Fe] ∼ 0.15 dex, [O/Fe] larger than [Mg/Fe] (by ∼0.1 dex), and C abundance consistent with that of Mg. In the central (few arcsec) region, we still find an enhancement of O and Mg, but significantly lower [C/Fe]. We find that the COs' line strengths of the bulge are significantly lower than those of massive galaxies, possibly because of a difference in carbon abundance, as well as, to some extent, total metallicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the third data release of the INvestigating Stellar Population In RElics (INSPIRE) project, comprising 52 ultra-compact massive galaxies (UCMGs) observed with the X-Shooter spectrograph. We measure integrated stellar velocity dispersion, [Mg/Fe] abundances, ages, and metallicities for all the INSPIRE objects. We thus infer star formation histories and confirm the existence of a degree of relicness (DoR), defined in terms of the fraction of stellar mass formed by z  = 2, the time at which a galaxy has assembled 75 per cent of its mass, and the final assembly time. Objects with a high DoR assembled their stellar mass at early epochs, while low-DoR objects show a non-negligible fraction of later formed populations and hence a spread in ages and metallicities. A higher DoR correlates with larger [Mg/Fe], supersolar metallicity, and larger velocity dispersion values. The 52 UMCGs span a large range of DoR from 0.83 to 0.06, with 38 of them having formed more than 75  per cent of their mass by z  = 2. Of these, nine are extreme relics (DoR>0.7), since they formed the totality (⁠|$\gt 99~{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$|⁠) of their stellar mass by redshift z  = 2. The remaining 14 UCMGs cannot be considered relics, as they are characterized by more extended star formation histories. With INSPIRE  we built the first sizeable sample of relics outside the local Universe, up to z ∼ 0.4, increasing the number of confirmed relics by a factor of >10, and opening up an important window to explain the mass assembly of massive galaxies in the high- z Universe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The upcoming generation of optical spectrographs on four meter-class telescopes, with their huge multiplexing capabilities, excellent spectral resolution, and unprecedented wavelength coverage, will provide high-quality spectra for thousands of galaxies. These data will allow us to examine of the stellar population properties at intermediate redshift, an epoch that remains unexplored by large and deep surveys. Aims. We assess our capability to retrieve the mean stellar metallicity in galaxies at different redshifts and signal-to-noise ratios (S/N), while simultaneously exploiting the ultraviolet (UV) and optical rest-frame wavelength coverage. Methods. The work is based on a comprehensive library of spectral templates of stellar populations, covering a wide range of age and metallicity values and built assuming various star formation histories, to cover an observable parameter space with diverse chemical enrichment histories and dust attenuation. We took into account possible observational errors, simulating realistic observations of a large sample of galaxies carried out with WEAVE at the William Herschel Telescope at different redshifts and S/N values. We measured all the available and reliable indices on the simulated spectra and on the comparison library. We then adopted a Bayesian approach to compare the two sets of measurements in order to obtain the probability distribution of stellar metallicity with an accurate estimate of the uncertainties. Results. The analysis of the spectral indices has shown how some mid-UV indices, such as BL3580 and Fe3619, can provide reliable constraints on stellar metallicity, along with optical indicators. The analysis of the mock observations has shown that even at S/N = 10, the metallicity can be derived within 0.3 dex, in particular, for stellar populations older than 2 Gyr. The S/N value plays a crucial role in the uncertainty of the estimated metallicity and so, the differences between S/N = 10 and S/N = 30 are quite large, with uncertainties of ~0.15 dex in the latter case. On the contrary, moving from S/N = 30 to S/N = 50, the improvement on the uncertainty of the metallicity measurements is almost negligible. Our results are in good agreement with other theoretical and observational works in the literature and show how the UV indicators, coupled with classic optical ones, can be advantageous in constraining metallicities. Conclusions. We demonstrate that a good accuracy can be reached on the spectroscopic measurements of the stellar metallicity of galaxies at intermediate redshift, even at low S/N, when a large number of indices can be employed, including some UV indices. This is very promising for the upcoming surveys carried out with new, highly multiplexed, large-field spectrographs, such as StePS at the WEAVE and 4MOST, which will provide spectra of thousands of galaxies covering large spectral ranges (between 3600 and 9000 Å in the observed frame) at relatively high S/N (>10 Å−1). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We derived stellar ages and metallicities [Z/H] for ∼70 passive early-type galaxies (ETGs) selected from VANDELS survey over the redshift range 1.0 < z < 1.4 and stellar mass range 10 < log(M */M⊙) < 11.6. We find significant systematics in their estimates depending on models and wavelength ranges considered. Using the full-spectrum fitting technique, we find that both [Z/H] and age increase with mass as for local ETGs. Age and metallicity sensitive spectral indices independently confirm these trends. According to EMILES models, for 67 per cent of the galaxies we find [Z/H] > 0.0, a percentage which rises to ∼90 per cent for log(M */M⊙) > 11 where the mean metallicity is [Z/H] = 0.17 ± 0.1. A comparison with homogeneous measurements at similar and lower redshift does not show any metallicity evolution over the redshift range 0.0 < z < 1.4. The derived star formation (SF) histories show that the stellar mass fraction formed at early epoch increases with the mass of the galaxy. Galaxies with log(M */M⊙) > 11.0 host stellar populations with [Z/H] > 0.05, formed over short time-scales (Δ t 50 < 1 Gyr) at early epochs (t form < 2 Gyr), implying high star formation rates (SFR > 100 M⊙ yr−1) in high-mass density regions (log(Σ1kpc) > 10 M⊙/kpc2). This sharp picture tends to blur at lower masses: log(M */M⊙) ∼ 10.6 galaxies can host either old stars with [Z/H] < 0.0 or younger stars with [Z/H] > 0.0, depending on the duration (Δ t 50) of the SF. The relations between galaxy mass, age, and metallicities are therefore largely set up ab initio as part of the galaxy formation process. Mass, SFR, and SF time-scale all contribute to shape up the stellar mass–metallicity relation with the mass that modulates metals retention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The upcoming new generation of optical spectrographs on four-meter-class telescopes will provide valuable opportunities for forthcoming galaxy surveys through their huge multiplexing capabilities, excellent spectral resolution, and unprecedented wavelength coverage. Aims. WEAVE is a new wide-field spectroscopic facility mounted on the 4.2m William Herschel Telescope in La Palma. WEAVE-StePS is one of the five extragalactic surveys that will use WEAVE during its first five years of operations. It will observe galaxies using WEAVE MOS (~950 fibres distributed across a field of view of ~3 square degrees on the sky) in low-resolution mode (R ~ 5000, spanning the wavelength range 36609590 Å). Methods. WEAVE-StePS will obtain high-quality spectra (S=N ~ 10Å1 at R ~ 5000) for a magnitude-limited (IAB = 20:5) sample of ~25 000 galaxies, the majority selected at z - 0:3. The survey goal is to provide precise spectral measurements in the crucial interval that bridges the gap between LEGA-C and SDSS data. The wide area coverage of ~25 square degrees will enable us to observe galaxies in a variety of environments. The ancillary data available in each of the observed fields (including X-ray coverage, multi-narrow-band photometry and spectroscopic redshift information) will provide an environmental characterisation for each observed galaxy. Results. This paper presents the science case of WEAVE-StePS, the fields to be observed, the parent catalogues used to define the target sample, and the observing strategy that was chosen after a forecast of the expected performance of the instrument for our typical targets. Conclusions. WEAVE-StePS will go back further in cosmic time than SDSS, extending its reach to encompass more than ~6 Gyr. This is nearly half of the age of the Universe. The spectral and redshift range covered by WEAVE-StePS will open a new observational window by continuously tracing the evolutionary path of galaxies in the largely unexplored intermediate-redshift range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The INvestigating Stellar Population In RElics (INSPIRE) is an ongoing project targeting 52 ultra-compact massive galaxies at 0.1 <  z <  0.5 with the X-shooter at VLT spectrograph (XSH). These objects are the ideal candidates to be 'relics', massive red nuggets that have formed at high redshift (z >  2) through a short and intense star formation burst, and then have evolved passively and undisturbed until the present day. Relics provide a unique opportunity to study the mechanisms of star formation at high-z. Aims.INSPIRE is designed to spectroscopically confirm and fully characterise a large sample of relics, computing their number density in the redshift window 0.1 <  z <  0.5 for the first time, thus providing a benchmark for cosmological galaxy formation simulations. In this paper, we present the INSPIRE Data Release (DR1), comprising 19 systems with observations completed in 2020. Methods. We use the methods already presented in the INSPIRE Pilot, but revisiting the 1D spectral extraction. For the 19 systems studied here, we obtain an estimate of the stellar velocity dispersion, fitting the two XSH arms (UVB and VIS) separately at their original spectral resolution to two spectra extracted in different ways. We estimate [Mg/Fe] abundances via line-index strength and mass-weighted integrated stellar ages and metallicities with full spectral fitting on the combined (UVB+VIS) spectrum. Results. For each system, different estimates of the velocity dispersion always agree within the errors. Spectroscopic ages are very old for 13/19 galaxies, in agreement with the photometric ones, and metallicities are almost always (18/19) super-solar, confirming the mass–metallicity relation. The [Mg/Fe] ratio is also larger than solar for the great majority of the galaxies, as expected. We find that ten objects formed more than 75% of their stellar mass (M⋆) within 3 Gyr from the big bang and classify them as relics. Among these, we identify four galaxies that had already fully assembled their M⋆ by that time and are therefore 'extreme relics' of the ancient Universe. Interestingly, relics, overall, have a larger [Mg/Fe] and a more metal-rich stellar population. They also have larger integrated velocity dispersion values compared to non-relics (both ultra-compact and normal-size) of similar stellar mass. Conclusions. The INSPIRE DR1 catalogue of ten known relics is the largest publicly available collection, augmenting the total number of confirmed relics by a factor of 3.3, and also enlarging the redshift window. The resulting lower limit for the number density of relics at 0.17 <  z <  0.39 is ρ ∼ 9.1 × 10−8 Mpc−3. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using new, homogeneous, long-slit spectroscopy in the wavelength range from ∼0.35 to |$\sim 1 \, \mu$| m, we study radial gradients of optical and near-infrared (NIR) initial mass function (IMF)-sensitive features along the major axis of the bulge of M31, out to a galactocentric distance of ∼200 arcsec (∼800 pc). Based on state-of-the-art stellar population synthesis models with varying Na abundance ratio, we fit a number of spectral indices, from different chemical species (including TiO's, Ca, and Na indices), to constrain the low-mass (≲0.5 M⊙) end slope (i.e. the fraction of low-mass stars) of the stellar IMF, as a function of galactocentric distance. Outside a radial distance of ∼10 arcsec, we infer an IMF similar to a Milky Way-like distribution, while at small galactocentric distances, an IMF radial gradient is detected, with a mildly bottom-heavy IMF in the few inner arcsec. We are able to fit Na features (both NaD and |$\rm Na\,{\small I}8190$|⁠), without requiring extremely high Na abundance ratios. |$\rm [Na/Fe]$| is ∼0.4 dex for most of the bulge, rising up to ∼0.6 dex in the innermost radial bins. Our results imply an overall, luminosity-weighted, IMF and mass-to-light ratio for the M31 bulge, consistent with those for a Milky Way-like distribution, in contrast to results obtained, in general, for most massive early-type galaxies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present spectroscopic observations obtained at the Large Binocular Telescope in the field of the cluster XLSSJ0223−0436 at z  = 1.22. We confirm 12 spheroids cluster members and determine stellar velocity dispersion for 7 of them. We combine these data with those in the literature for clusters RXJ0848+4453 at z  = 1.27 (8 galaxies) and XMMJ2235−2557 at z  = 1.39 (7 galaxies) to determine the Fundamental Plane (FP) of cluster spheroids. We find that the FP at z ∼ 1.3 is offset and rotated (∼3σ) with respect to the local FP. The offset corresponds to a mean evolution Δlog(M dyn/ L B) = (−0.5 ± 0.1) z. High-redshift galaxies follow a steeper mass-dependent M dyn/ L B– M dyn relation than local ones. Assuming Δ log(M dyn/ L B) = Δ log(M */ L B), higher mass galaxies [log(M dyn/M⊙) ≥ 11.5] have a higher formation redshift (z f ≥ 6.5) than lower mass ones [ z f ≤2 for log(M dyn/M⊙ ≤ 10)], with a median z f ≃ 2.5 for the whole sample. Also, galaxies with higher stellar mass density host stellar populations formed earlier than those in lower density galaxies. At fixed initial mass function, M dyn/ M * varies systematically with mass and mass density. It follows that the evolution of the stellar populations (M */ L B) accounts for the observed evolution of M dyn/ L B for M dyn > 1011 M⊙ galaxies, while accounts for ∼85 per cent of the evolution at M dyn < 1011 M⊙. We find no evidence in favour of structural evolution of individual galaxies, while we find evidences that spheroids later added to the population may account for the observed discrepancy between Δlog(M dyn/ L B) and Δ log(M */ L B) at masses <1011 M⊙. Thus, the evolution of the FP of cluster spheroids is consistent with the mass-dependent and mass density-dependent evolution of their stellar populations superimposed to a minor contribution of spheroids joining the population at later times. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using new long-slit spectroscopy obtained with X-Shooter at ESO-VLT, we study, for the first time, radial gradients of optical and near-infrared initial mass function (IMF)-sensitive features in a representative sample of galaxies at the very high mass end of the galaxy population. The sample consists of seven early-type galaxies (ETGs) at z ∼ 0.05, with central velocity dispersion in the range 300 ≲ σ ≲ 350 km s−1. Using state-of-the-art stellar population synthesis models, we fit a number of spectral indices, from different chemical species (including TiO and Na indices), to constrain the IMF slope (i.e. the fraction of low-mass stars), as a function of galactocentric distance, over a radial range out to ∼4 kpc. ETGs in our sample show a significant correlation of IMF slope and surface mass density. The bottom-heavy population (i.e. an excess of low-mass stars in the IMF) is confined to central galaxy regions with surface mass density above |$\rm \sim 10^{10}\, M_\odot \, kpc^{-2}$|⁠ , or, alternatively, within a characteristic radius of ∼2 kpc. Radial distance, in physical units, and surface mass density are the best correlators to IMF variations, with respect to other dynamical (e.g. velocity dispersion) and stellar population (e.g. metallicity) properties. Our results for the most massive galaxies suggest that there is no single parameter that fully explains variations in the stellar IMF, but IMF radial profiles at z ∼ 0 rather result from the complex formation and mass accretion history of galaxy inner and outer regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The stellar initial mass function (IMF) regulates the baryonic cycle within galaxies, and is a key ingredient for translating observations into physical quantities. Although it was assumed to be universal for decades, there is now growing observational evidence showing that the center of massive early-type galaxies hosts a larger population of low-mass stars than is expected based on observations from the Milky Way. Moreover, these variations in the IMF have been found to be related to radial metallicity variations in massive galaxies. We present here a two-dimensional stellar population analysis of the massive lenticular galaxy FCC 167 (NGC 1380) as part of the Fornax3D project. Using a newly developed stellar population fitting scheme, we derive a full two-dimensional IMF map of an early-type galaxy. This two-dimensional analysis allows us go further than a radial analysis, showing how the metallicity changes along a disk-like structure while the IMF follows a distinct, less disky distribution. Thus, our findings indicate that metallicity cannot be the sole driver of the observed radial IMF variations. In addition, a comparison with the orbital decomposition shows suggestive evidence of a coupling between stellar population properties and the internal dynamical structure of FCC 167, where metallicity and IMF maps seem to track the distribution of cold and warm orbits, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the analysis, based on spectra collected at the Large Binocular Telescope, of the stellar populations in seven spheroidal galaxies in the cluster XLSSJ0223 at |$z$| ∼ 1.22. The aim is to constrain the epoch of their formation and their star formation history. Using absorption line strenghts and full spectral fitting, we derive for the stellar populations of the seven spheroids a median age  = 2.4 ± 0.6 Gyr, corresponding to a median formation redshift |$\lt z_f \gt {\sim }2.6_{-0.5}^{+0.7}$| (lookback time  = 11 |$_{-1.0}^{+0.6}$| Gyr). We find a significant scatter in age, showing that massive spheroids, at least in our targeted cluster, are not coeval. The median metallicity is [ Z /H] = 0.09 ± 0.16, as for early-types in clusters at 0 < |$z$| < 0.9. This lack of evolution of [ Z /H] over the range 0 < |$z$| < 1.3, corresponding to the last 9 billion years, suggests that no significant additional star formation and chemical enrichment are required for cluster spheroids to reach the present-day population. We do not detect significant correlation between age and velocity dispersion σ e , or dynamical mass M dyn, or effective stellar mass density Σ e . On the contrary, the metallicity [ Z /H] of the seven spheroids is correlated to their dynamical mass M dyn, according to a relation similar to the one for local spheroids. [ Z /H] is also anticorrelated to stellar mass density Σ e because of the anticorrelation between M dyn and Σ e . Therefore, the basic trends observed in the local Universe were already established at |$z$|  ∼ 1.3, i.e. more massive spheroids are more metal-rich, have lower stellar mass density, and tend to be older than lower mass galaxies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]