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Transport Research Arena (TRA) Conference, Lisbonne, PORTUGAL, 14-/11/2022 - 17/11/2022; Investigating psychological characteristics and dynamic behaviors can provide insight in the behavior of at-risk drivers. Achievement goals in driving have recently been studied to assess driver motivation. The four achievement goals in driving are mastery-approach, performance-approach, mastery-avoidance, and performance-avoidance. Naturalistic Driving Studies provide access to objective measurements of driving (i.e., speed, acceleration). Three dynamic criteria have been developed to objectively characterize driver behavior. The aim of this study was to examine the predictive role of achievement goals on objective driving behaviors. During 8 months, 4,626,379 km of 299 drivers was recorded, and simultaneously, the Achievement Goals in Driving Questionnaire was completed. Mastery-approach goals seem to be the most protective goals in driving, as opposed to performance-approach goals.

Purpose: Alcohol is the most frequent detected substance in the automobile fatal crashes but its precise mode of action on mental state is not always clear, notably when combined with lack of driving experience. The aim of this work is thus to evaluate performance and self-reported alertness and effort as a function of low doses of Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) and of drivers' experience. Methods: A single blind counterbalanced experiment was conducted on a driving simulator. Fifteen young novice drivers (18 years old, less of 2 months of driving licence) and fifteen young experienced drivers (21 years old, 3 years of driving licence) were tested with 0.0 g/l, 0.2 g/l and 0.5 g/l of alcohol at early afternoon. Driving scenarios was road tracking during 45 min at a constant speed of 110 km/h while maintaining a steady trajectory. Participants responded to the Thayer's scale before and after each driving session, and to an adaptation of the NASA-TLX after each driving session. Statistical analyses were performed on driving parameters, self-reported alertness and effort as a function of alcohol level and driving experience. Results: Alcohol deteriorated lateral and longitudinal stability of the trajectories. Notably with BAC 0.5 g/l, effort and speed increased but the increase in speed was particularly high for young experienced drivers. When young novice drivers felt that they were low alert, they also felt that they exerted more effort, their performance decreased, but they reduced their speed. Conclusions: Alcohol thus degrades driving performance, and especially when the effort is high and alertness is low. The decrease of inhibitory process noted in presence of alcohol seems thus higher for young experienced than for young novice drivers. Results are in line with a drop in the blood alcohol level tolerated while driving.

Background Surging acceptance of adaptive cruise control (ACC) across the globe is further escalating concerns over its energy impact. Two questions have directed much of this project: how to distinguish ACC driving behaviour from that of the human driver and how to identify the ACC energy impact. As opposed to simulations or test-track experiments as described in previous studies, this work is unique because it was performed in real-world car-following scenarios with a variety of vehicle specifications, propulsion systems, drivers, and road and traffic conditions. Methods Tractive energy consumption serves as the energy impact indicator, ruling out the effect of the propulsion system. To further isolate the driving behaviour as the only possible contributor to tractive energy differences, two techniques are offered to normalize heterogeneous vehicle specifications and road and traffic conditions. Finally, ACC driving behaviour is compared with that of the human driver from transient and statistical perspectives. Its impact on tractive energy consumption is then evaluated from individual and platoon perspectives. Results Our data suggest that unlike human drivers, ACC followers lead to string instability. Their inability to absorb the speed overshoots may partly be explained by their high responsiveness from a control theory perspective. Statistical results might imply the followers in the automated or mixed traffic flow generally perform worse in reproducing the driving style of the preceding vehicle. On the individual level, ACC followers have tractive energy consumption 2.7 – 20.5 % higher than those of human counterparts. On the platoon level, the tractive energy values of ACC followers tend to consecutively increase (11.2 – 17.3 %). Conclusions In general, therefore, ACC impacts negatively on tractive energy efficiency. This research provides a feasible path for evaluating the energy impact of ACC in real-world applications. Moreover, the findings have significant implications for ACC safety design when handling the stability-responsiveness trade-off.

21st Congress of the International Ergonomics Association (IEA 2021), VANCOUVER, CANADA, 14-/06/2021 - 18/06/2021; International audience; Using an integrative user-centered approach, the research project aimed at designing and assessing an adaptive HMI to improve the safety and the quality of the take-over in a level-3 automated vehicle. Future autonomous driving users confirmed the need for the monitoring systems to improve safety as long as they are simple and not intrusive. They request specific information to understand and initiate appropriated actions in case of a critical situation. However, to avoid overloading and detri-mental effects, it is important that the system limits the amount of infor-mation at the right moment.

Driving anxiety can have a significant impact on one’s quality of life, particularly for those who experience intense levels. However, to date there are limited data about the perceived impact of driving anxiety on occupational life, and driving anxiety remains under-researched in France. To address this gap, an online survey assessing self-reported driving anxiety, how it manifests and its links with some aspects of personal and occupational life was designed. The survey was administered in France to respondents who identified as experiencing driving anxiety. Responses were obtained from 304 people aged 18 years or older. In the sample, 32.2%, 44.7% and 23% respectively reported mild, moderate and extreme levels of driving anxiety. In the extremely anxious group, males were under-represented, whereas people aged 35–44 and unlicensed drivers were over-represented. People who were unemployed (excluding students and retired people), reported that their anxiety had been a barrier to getting a job and a high percentage of these respondents had also previously considered leaving a position because of their anxiety. Respondents also reported their anxiety had a negative impact on their perceived quality of life in general. People who categorised as extremely anxious reported a negative impact four times higher than those in the mildly anxious group. The results highlight for the first time the perceived impact of driving anxiety on daily and occupational life in a French population. Further, the results demonstrate the importance of distinguishing between moderately and extremely anxious drivers as the intensity level has differential impacts on personal and work life quality.

The question of the possible impact of deafness on temporal processing remains unanswered. Different findings, based on behavioral measures, show contradictory results. The goal of the present study is to analyze the brain activity underlying time estimation by using functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) techniques, which allow examination of the frontal, central and occipital cortical areas. A total of 37 participants (19 deaf) were recruited. The experimental task involved processing a road scene to determine whether the driver had time to safely execute a driving task, such as overtaking. The road scenes were presented in animated format, or in sequences of 3 static images showing the beginning, mid-point, and end of a situation. The latter presentation required a clocking mechanism to estimate the time between the samples to evaluate vehicle speed. The results show greater frontal region activity in deaf people, which suggests that more cognitive effort is needed to process these scenes. The central region, which is involved in clocking according to several studies, is particularly activated by the static presentation in deaf people during the estimation of time lapses. Exploration of the occipital region yielded no conclusive results. Our results on the frontal and central regions encourage further study of the neural basis of time processing and its links with auditory capacity.; The question of the possible impact of deafness on temporal processing remains unanswered. Different findings, based on behavioral measures, show contradictory results. The goal of the present study is to analyze the brain activity underlying time estimation by using functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) techniques, which allow examination of the frontal, central and occipital cortical areas. A total of 37 participants (19 deaf) were recruited. The experimental task involved processing a road scene to determine whether the driver had time to safely execute a driving task, such as overtaking. The road scenes were presented in animated format, or in sequences of 3 static images showing the beginning, mid-point, and end of a situation. The latter presentation required a clocking mechanism to estimate the time between the samples to evaluate vehicle speed. The results show greater frontal region activity in deaf people, which suggests that more cognitive effort isneeded to process these scenes. The central region, which is involved in clocking according to several studies, is particularly activated by the static presentation in deaf people during the estimation of time lapses. Exploration of the occipital region yielded no conclusive results. Our results on the frontal and central regions encourage further study of the neural basis of time processing and its links with auditory capacity.

Active visual scanning of the scene is a key task-element in all forms of human locomotion. In the field of driving, steering (lateral control) and speed adjustments (longitudinal control) models are largely based on drivers' visual inputs. Despite knowledge gained on gaze behaviour behind the wheel, our understanding of the sequential aspects of the gaze strategies that actively sample that input remains restricted. Here, we apply scan path analysis to investigate sequences of visual scanning in manual and highly automated simulated driving. Five stereotypical visual sequences were identified under manual driving: forward polling (i.e. far road explorations), guidance, backwards polling (i.e. near road explorations), scenery and speed monitoring scan paths. Previously undocumented backwards polling scan paths were the most frequent. Under highly automated driving backwards polling scan paths relative frequency decreased, guidance scan paths relative frequency increased, and automation supervision specific scan paths appeared. The results shed new light on the gaze patterns engaged while driving. Methodological and empirical questions for future studies are discussed.

Objectives Many older drivers incorrectly estimate their driving ability. The present study aimed to determine whether, and if so, to what extent unawareness of cognitive abilities affects self-awareness of driving ability. Method Two successive studies were conducted in older drivers. A cohort study investigated cognitive self-awareness and an experimental study examined driving self-awareness. In each one, self-awareness was assessed by cross-analyzing objective (respectively Trail-Making Tests A and B and the Digit Symbol Substitution Test and driving performance of on-road assessment) and subjective data (responses about everyday cognitive skills and driving ability). Older drivers were then classified as being over-, correct, or underestimators. The 3 cognitive and driving self-awareness profiles were then cross-analyzed. Results In the cohort study, 1,190 drivers aged 70 years or older were included. The results showed that 42.7% of older drivers overestimated their cognitive ability, 42.2% estimated it correctly, and 15.1% underestimated it. The experimental study included 145 participants from the cohort. The results showed that 34% of participants overestimated, 45% correctly estimated, and 21% underestimated their driving ability. There was a significant relationship between cognitive and driving self-awareness profiles (p = .02). This overlap was more marked in overestimators. Discussion Significant overlap between cognitive and driving self-awareness provides useful and new knowledge about driving in the aging population. Misestimation of cognitive ability could hamper self-awareness of driving ability, and consequently self-regulation of driving. It is now crucial to develop measures that promote self-awareness of ability.

Mind-wandering (MW) has a negative impact on tasks requiring sustained and divided attention like driving. During MW, drivers experience perceptual decoupling. As driving is mainly a visual activity, it would seem to be appropriate to evaluate stages of visual information processing impaired during MW, using event-related potential techniques. The aim of the present study was to investigate how the level of attention devoted to driving impacted visual information processing and reaction time. The findings showed reductions in visual N1 and P3 amplitudes while driving and longer reaction times during periods of self-reported MW. This suggests that drivers can become detached from their environment by redirecting their attention to their personal thoughts and some of their cognitive resources may be consumed to feed internal trains of thought. In the future, investigating off-task characteristics might be useful in better understanding the impact of MW in car crashes.

Background: Stress can frequently occur in the driving context. Its cognitive effects can be deleterious and lead to uncomfortable or risky situations. While stress detection in this context is well developed, regulation using dedicated advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) is still emergent. Objectives: This systematic review focuses on stress regulation strategies that can be qualified as “subtle” or “mindless”: the technology employed to perform regulation does not interfere with an ongoing task. The review goal is 2-fold: establishing the state of the art on such technological implementation in the driving context and identifying complementary technologies relying on subtle regulation that could be applied in driving. Methods: A systematic review was conducted using search operators previously identified through a concept analysis. The patents and scientific studies selected provide an overview of actual and potential mindless technology implementations. These are then analyzed from a scientific perspective. A classification of results was performed according to the different stages of emotion regulation proposed by the Gross model. Results: A total of 47 publications were retrieved, including 21 patents and 26 studies. Six of the studies investigated mindless stress regulation in the driving context. Patents implemented strategies mostly linked to attentional deployment, while studies tended to investigate response modulation strategies. Conclusions: This review allowed us to identify several ADAS relying on mindless computing technologies to reduce stress and better understand the underlying mechanisms allowing stress reduction. Further studies are necessary to better grasp the effect of mindless technologies on driving safety. However, we have established the feasibility of their implementation as ADAS and proposed directions for future research in this field.

2019 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), PISE, ITALIE, 30-/09/2019 - 03/10/2019; With the highly development of navigation techniques during the past decades, the demand for seamless indoor-outdoor navigation is growing from different application fields especially for the military or the first response emergency services. For military applications, one of the key performance requirements is the availability of the positioning solutions for all kinds of dynamics in different environments. Furthermore, due to the stealth requirement in some military actions, it is impossible for military vehicles or personnel to emit signals which enable to be detected by their opponents. This limitation prevents the use of infrastructure-based cooperative localization techniques. The research work of this paper aims at facing the following challenging issues: firstly, to design a positioning filter which is adaptive to the dynamic changes between walking and driving; secondly, to find an approach that correctly identifies the transition between outdoor and indoor with reduced latency; finally, to construct a loosely coupling GNSS/IMU scheme which takes into account the GNSS signal distortion in indoor and urban spaces. Under this context, we propose a complete indoor-outdoor infrastructure-free positioning prototype including a foot-mounted reference navigation system named Pedestrian Reference System (PERSY) and a Ublox High Sensitivity GNSS (HSGNSS) receiver (M8P). A loosely-coupled architecture between GNSS receiver and the PERSY is employed by using an indicator of horizontal position accuracy $\backslash$textitPACCH provided by the GNSS Ublox M8P receiver. This indicator allows qualifying the position solutions delivered by the GNSS receiver as well as detecting the transition of indoor/outdoor, which helps the PERSY to update with absolute positions from GNSS. This positioning prototype can take advantage of both GNSS and PERSY so as to realize a seamless indoor-outdoor positioning for pedestrians and vehicles. The proposed system is evaluated in two scenarios over respectively 2.17 km and 2.68 km including indoor , outdoor and in-vehicle phases. The median horizontal position errors for the two scenarios are respectively 2.23 m and 1.93 m.

Research works on operator monitoring underline the benefit of taking into consideration several signal modalities to improve accuracy for an objective mental state diagnosis. Heart rate (HR) is one of the most utilized systemic measures to assess cognitive workload (CW), whereas, respiration parameters are hardly utilized. This study aims at verifying the contribution of analyzing respiratory signals to extract features to evaluate driver's activity and CW variations in driving. Eighteen subjects participated in the study. The participants carried out two different cognitive tasks requiring different CW demands, a single task as well as a competing cognitive task realized while driving in a simulator. Our results confirm that both HR and breathing rate (BR) increase in driving and are sensitive to CW. However, HR and BR are differently modulated by the CW variations in driving. Specifically, HR is affected by both driving activity and CW, whereas, BR is suitable to evidence a variation of CW only when driving is not required. On the other hand, spectral features characterizing respiratory signal could be also used similarly to HR variability indices to detect high CW episodes. These results hint the use of respiration as an alternative to HR to monitor the driver mental state in autonomic vehicles in order to predict the available cognitive resources if the user has to take over the vehicle.

Introduction: Driving an automobile is an important activity for the social participation of individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Return to safe driving is usually addressed during rehabilitation, but we know little about driving behaviors in the years following TBI rehabilitation.Objective: To explore self-reported and objective (official driving records) post-rehabilitation driving behaviors and offenses in individuals with TBI: (a) having passed a driving evaluation, (b) who did not undergo a driving evaluation, and (c) non-injured controls.Methods: Cross-sectional design with 162 adults: (a) 48 participants with mild, moderate, or severe TBI whose drivers' license was suspended and reinstated following a driving evaluation during rehabilitation (TBI-DE; M = 42.2 years of age, SD = 11.5); (b) 24 participants with TBI who maintained their driving privileges without undergoing a driving evaluation (TBI-NE; M = 36.5 years of age, SD = 9.9); (c) 90 non-injured controls (M = 43.8 years of age, SD = 11.4). Participants with TBI were recruited from seven rehabilitation centers, 2-3 years after the end of rehabilitation in the province of Quebec, Canada. During a telephone interview, data were obtained regarding self-reported driving: (a) habits; (b) self-efficacy; (c) anger expression; (d) sensation-seeking; (e) violations/errors; (f) accidents, driving offenses, and demerit points for the two-year interval predating the study. Objective data for driving offenses, accidents, and demerit points were obtained from the automobile regulatory body for the same period and for the two-year interval before the injury for the TBI groups.Results: Compared to non-injured controls, the TBI-DE group reported significantly lower scores for self-reported verbal aggressive expression of anger and driving violations/errors. Conversely, their official driving records showed significantly more demerit points for the last 2 years, and a significantly higher frequency of serious post-rehabilitation accidents (10), compared to the TBI-NE group (one) and the control group (none). Compared to pre-injury levels, individuals with TBI had significantly more demerit points post-rehabilitation.Conclusions: Individuals with TBI may underestimate risky driving behaviors even if they have been deemed fit to drive. Reduced self-awareness, memory, and dysexecutive problems following TBI could influence self-report of driving behaviors and explain discrepancies between self-reported and objective driving-related behaviors. Recommendations for research and practice are provided.; La possibilité de conduire est importante pour la participation sociale des adultes ayant subi un TCC. Le retour à la conduite automobile sécuritaire est abordé pendant la réadaptation, mais nous en savons peu sur les capacités et comportements de conduite dans les années après le TCC. Objectif : Évaluer si les personnes avec un TCC ayant réussi une évaluation de la conduite automobile se différencient, en termes de comportements et d'infractions de conduite, de celles n'ayant pas eu d'évaluation de la conduite, et de témoins sans TCC. Participants (a) 48 TCC léger/modéré/grave - permis de conduire suspendu et rétabli après une évaluation de la conduite auto pendant la réadaptation 24 TCC - permis maintenu sans évaluation de la conduite (b) 2-3 ans après la réadaptation Recrutés via 7 centres de réadaptation (Montréal: CRLB, CRCL, HJR; Montérégie & Estrie: CRM, CRE; Laurentides & Lanaudière: CR Le Bouclier; Québec: IRDPQ)(c) 90 témoins sans TCC/trouble neurologique recrutés dans la population générale; appariés pour région géographique (d) Tous conduisaient plus de 1000 km/an depuis au moins deux ans (témoins) ou avant le TCC Mesures (e) Comportements de conduite auto-rapportés (entrevue tél.) (f) Accidents/sanctions auto-rapportées depuis 2 ans, et documentées depuis 2 ans et dans les 2 ans pré TCC (SAAQ). Conclusion. Les personnes avec un TCC ayant réussi une évaluation de la conduite automobile : ont repris la conduite automobile au même niveau que les personnes TCC n'ayant pas eu d'évaluation et que les témoins pourraient sous-évaluer leurs comportements de conduite automobile à risque Selon les résultats du groupe de discussion mené avec des intervenants de 10 des 12 programmes d'évaluation de la conduite automobile du Qc : l'autocritique face aux habiletés de conduite devrait être évaluée davantage lors de l'évaluation sur route, p. ex. en conduite non dirigée une collaboration serrée entre le professionnel en évaluation de la conduite et l'équipe de réadaptation peut contribuer à mieux cerner les aspects cognitifs, comportementaux et psychologiques pré-post TCC pouvant avoir un impact sur la conduite, et à déterminer le meilleur moment pour effectuer l'évaluation une réflexion est à faire sur l'harmonisation des pratiques d'évaluation sur route, la place donnée à l'entraînement en conduite et le besoin d'effectuer des suivis post-réadaptation chez les personnes TCC qui ont réussi l'évaluation de la conduite mais qui pourraient être considérées à risque.

Lane Departure Warning Systems (LDWS) are known to be effective at preventing lane departures. The current study aimed to further investigate the influence of LDWS incorrect warnings along with the warning onset on driving performances. Performances were considered during missed warned lane departure episodes, as well as correctly warned lane departure episodes following incorrectly warned (false or/and missed warning) episodes. In the reported experiment, the incorrect warnings order of presentation was manipulated along with the warning onsets (partial and full lane departure). Results pointed out that a missed warning is impairing driving performances during the missed warned situation, whereas a false warning is impairing driving performances for the subsequent lane departure. Moreover, if false warning impairment is magnified by the occurrence of a subsequent missed warning, this multiplicative effect is restricted to the following lane departure only. These findings bring both theoretical and practical insights. From a theoretical perspective, the human-machine cooperation LDWS model was refined by the adjunction of a transitional influence of incorrect warnings on the information processing. From a practical perspective, the recommendation to avoid false warnings as much as missed warnings was made.

6th International Conference on Driver Distraction and Inattention, DDI2018, Gothenburg, SUEDE, 15-/10/2018 - 17/10/2018; We are in an era of mobility transformation [1]. Pervasive personal communication technologies and in-vehicle digitalisation already impacts daily life, while vehicle automation is on the cusp of widespread impact. Consequently, there is a critical need to understand distraction and the limits of attention in many modes of transportation - both in-vehicle modes (manual-, assisted-, and automated driving) and in new forms of transportation - as they all are affected by digitalisation and limits of attention. Distracted driving has long been a contributor to motor vehicle crashes [2], and is flourishing in these new digitalised mobility environments [3].; Guest Editorial - Pas de résumé

DDI 2018, 6th International Conference on Driver Distraction and Inattention, Göteborg, SUEDE, 15-/10/2018 - 17/10/2018; Young novice drivers have a high risk of crashes and a linear relationship has been demonstrated between blood alcohol concentration (BAC) and crash risk for this population [1, 2]. They are also over represented in crashes linked to long period of driving. Generally, it is well known that the major part of sleep (or fatigue)-related crashes takes place during the two daily periods of physiological decrease of alertness [3]. Moreover, a monotonous road environment can influence the level of alertness [4]. Thus, effort of novice drivers higher when alertness is low and the lack of resources can explain this result [5]. Consequently, the aim of this work is to evaluate the combined effect of these factors of accident (alcohol and driving experience) on driving performance. The hypothesis is that an increase of effort decreases alertness, notably when drivers lack of experience or in presence of alcohol, but could be balanced by an additional effort until a certain threshold.

ObjectivesTo assess crash risk and driving habits associated with chronic medical conditions among drivers entering old age.DesignProspective cohort study.SettingFrench cohort GAZEL.Participants12 460 drivers in the analysis of road traffic crash, among whom 11 670 completed the follow-up period (2007–2014). We assessed driving cessation among 11 633 participants over the same period, and mileage and driving avoidance among the 4973 participants who returned a road safety questionnaire in 2015.Main outcome measuresYearly occurrence of at least one road crash as a driver; time to driving cessation; mileage; driving avoidance: at night, with bad weather, in heavy traffic, with glare conditions, over long distances.ResultsSeveral potentially risky conditions (angina, myocardial infarction, coronary disease; stroke; nephritic colic, urinary stones; glaucoma) were associated with lower mileage and/or driving avoidance and did not increase crash risk. Neither driving avoidance nor lower mileage was found for other conditions associated with an increased crash risk: hearing difficulties (adjusted OR 1.19, 95% CI 1.06 to 1.34); joint disorders (1.17, 95% CI 1.06 to 1.30). Depression, anxiety and stress was associated with an increased crash risk (1.23, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.49) despite increased driving avoidance. Parkinson’s disease was associated with driving cessation (adjusted HR 32.61, 95% CI 14.21 to 65.17).ConclusionsDepending on their condition, and probably on the associated risk perception, drivers entering old age report diverse driving habits. For example, hearing difficulties is a frequent condition, rarely considered a threat to road safety, and nonetheless associated with an increased crash risk.

International audience; In this article, we investigated what visual information is used by drivers at a road crossing when they want to synchronize their displacement with that of an incoming traffic train. We made the hypothesis that synchronizing self-displacement with that of a traffic gap shares the same perceptual-motor basis as interception tasks. While a large body of literature demonstrates that bearing angle is used to control interception, another range of studies points to optical size and expansion as playing a critical role in collision avoidance. In order to test the hypothesis of the exclusive use of bearing angle in road crossing task, we manipulated the optical size and expansion of oncoming traffic elements independently of bearing angle variations. We designed a driving simulator study in which participants were to adjust their approach speed in order to cross a road junction within a moving traffic gap. We manipulated the initial offset of participants with the traffic gap, the geometry of the road junction and the way optical size of oncoming traffic elements evolves over the course of a trial. Our results showed an effect of optical size and optical expansion manipulations eventhough, we also found similar displacement profiles as in interception studies. This demonstrates that bearing angle could not explain alone the control of such a complex perceptual-motor task. We discuss these results with regard to similar results in other fields of literature.; In this article, we investigated what visual information is used by drivers at a road crossing when they want to synchronized their displacement with that of an incoming traffic train. We made the hypothesis that synchronizing self-displacement with that of a traffic gap shares the same perceptual-motor basis as interception tasks. While a large body of literature demonstrated that bearing angle is used to control interception, another range of studies points to optical size and expansion as playing a critical role in collision avoidance. In order to test the hypothesis of the exclusive use of bearing angle in road crossing task, we manipulated the optical size and expansion of oncoming traffic elements independently of bearing angle variations. We designed a driving simulator study in which participants were to adjust their approach speed in order to cross a road junction within a moving traffic gap. We manipulated the initial offset of participants with the traffic gap, the geometry of the road junction and the way optical size of oncoming traffic elements evolves over the course of a trial. Our results showed an effect of optical size and optical expansion manipulations eventhough, we also found similar displacement profiles as in interception studies. This demonstrates that bearing angle could not explain alone the control of such a complex perceptual-motor task. We discuss these results with regard to similar results in other fields of literature.

Introduction The development of skills essential for avoiding crashes depends, in particular, on how drivers explain the causes of dangerous driving behaviors that resulted in a near crash. Here, we analyze causes attributed to such behaviors by car drivers in a self-report study. We explore the relationships between the dimensions of causal attribution, attribution of responsibility for the near crash, and drivers' comparative judgments. Method For approximately two months, drivers used logbooks to document the near crashes that occurred during their trips. The causes attributed in those reports to driving behaviors resulting in near crashes were then coded by two judges on the basis of several causal dimensions. Drivers also estimated their own and an average driver's skill levels, and their risk of being involved, as a driver, in a crash. Results We distinguished main types of causes of the near crashes reported. Drivers had a tendency to more often attribute external causes to their own behaviors resulting in near crashes than to those of others. The probability of attributing a controllable cause increased with overestimation of one's own skills and decreased with underestimation of one's own risk in comparison to other drivers. The probability of attributing a stable cause increased with underestimation of one's own risk. Conclusions When they explained their own behaviors resulting in near crashes, drivers mentioned different causes than when they explained those of others. Overestimation of one's own skills as compared to other drivers could be beneficial for developing crash-avoiding skills, insofar as it seems to foster attribution of controllable causes. By contrast, underestimation of one's own risk could have the opposite effect. Practical applications Vulnerability to road risks should be stressed in driver’s training and risk communication campaigns. However, self-confidence with respect to one's skills should not always be targeted as a safety problem.

Driving offences can be a cause of road crashes and their psychosocial determinants have been studied using different approaches. Recent studies have found that cultural values, transposed at individual level through the vertical-horizontal individualism-collectivism model, may be relevant for understanding offending behaviours in drivers and pedestrians. Within this framework, we propose to test these relationships in a sample of French drivers (N = 666). In addition, we aim to explore the role of situational factors and gender differences , as potential moderators for the effects of individualist and collectivist values on offending behaviours. In an online survey experiment, drivers had to evaluate their probabilities of committing several driving offences in three driving situations, manipulating traffic density level and the probability of being caught by the authorities. Statistical analyses showed that, compared to a control situation, probabilities of offending were lower in the heavy traffic condition and even lower in the high probability of being caught condition. Probabilities of offending were also higher for men than women and were positively predicted by vertical individualism. However, the main effects suggested that horizontal collectivism and vertical individualism predicted posit offences for men only, depending on situation for vertical individualism. These results were qualified by significant interactions between driving situation, gender and vertical individualism and between gender and horizontal collectivism. These findings are discussed in relation to gender differences in value expression. Perspectives to improve the relevance of the value framework mobilized, the importance to consider situational context to understand driving offending behaviours and safety implications are also discussed.; Les infractions routières peuvent être une cause d'accident de la route et leurs déterminants psychosociaux ont été étudié par différentes approches. Des études récentes ont montré que la prise en compte des valeurs culturelles, transposées au niveau individuel au travers du modèle de l'individualisme-collectivisme horizontal-vertical, peut être pertinente pour comprendre les comportements infractionnistes chez les automobilistes et les piétons. Dans ce cadre, nous proposons de tester ces relations dans un échantillon d'automobilistes français (N = 666). De plus, nous proposons d'explorer le rôle de facteurs situationnels et des différences de sexe, comme modérateurs potentiels des effets des valeurs individualistes et collectivistes sur les comportements infractionnistes. Au travers d'une étude en ligne par questionnaire, des automobilistes devaient évaluer leurs probabilités de commettre plusieurs infractions routières dans trois situations de conduite permettant de manipuler la densité du trafic ainsi que le risque d'être contrôlé par les forces de l'ordre. Les analyses statistiques montrent que, comparé à une condition contrôle, les probabilités d'infractions sont plus faibles dans la condition de trafic élevé et encore plus faible dans la condition de risque de contrôle important. Les probabilités d'infractions sont également plus importantes pour les hommes que pour les femmes et sont positivement prédites par l'individualisme vertical. Toutefois, les effets simples suggèrent que le collectivisme horizontal et l'individualisme vertical prédisent positivement les infractions pour les hommes seulement et en fonction de la situation pour l'individualisme vertical. Ces résultats sont caractérisés par une interaction significative entre la situation de conduite, le sexe et l'individualisme vertical et entre le sexe et le collectivisme horizontal. Ces résultats sont discutés en termes de différences de genre dans l'expression des valeurs. Les perspectives pour améliorer la pertinence de l'approche des valeurs mobilisée ici, l'importance de considérer le contexte situationnel pour comprendre les comportements infractionnistes sur la route, ainsi que les implications pour la sécurité routière sont également discutées.

DDI 2017 - 5th International Conference on Driver Distraction and Inattention, PARIS, FRANCE, 20-/03/2017 - 22/03/2017; In 2014, slightly over 3380 deaths occurred on metropolitan French roads (Observatoire National Interministériel de Sécurité Routière [ONISR], 2015). For pedestrians and cyclists the percentage of fatal accidents increased by around 4, and 7% respectively since 2010. In addition, accidents involving pedestrians and cyclists are mostly caused by other road users as motorists, truck or bus drivers making pedestrians and cyclists vulnerable road users [VRU]. Previous investigations showed that VRU visibility for road users (drivers) was a crucial main issue. To address this issue, first of all, attention management to VRU while driving must be investigated. For example, Hole, Tyrrell, and Langham (1996) show that expectations and knowledge about a stimulus would modulate attention to it. However, recent research in the field indicated that driving is also influenced by emotion. Several studies highlighted a specific harmful impact of negative emotions on several processes involved during driving activity (Ellis, and Moore, 1999; Lemercier, and Cellier, 2008), especially for anger (Stephens, and Groeger, 2009; Stephens, Trawley, Madigan and Groeger, 2013) Further, Rogé, El Zufari, Vienne, and Ndiaye (2015) found that a short film which delivered information to car divers about pedestrian, cyclist and motorcyclist vulnerability modified the intensity of negative emotions felt by motorists. In addition, among all emotions experienced during the film viewing, only anger intensity was positively correlated with a change in the visibility distance of VRU (i.e., road distance between a car driver and a VRU when the motorist claimed he has seen him). The greater is the distance, the more visible the VRU is for the driver (Rogé, Douissembekov, and Vienne, 2012). Therefore, in our study, we only wanted to test the role of different anger intensities on VRU detection abilities. For this reason, we chose to set up a VRU detection task on a car driving simulator (in order to avoid real-life risky situations). Anger-elicitation was carried out using short film clips (see Schaefer, Nils, Sanchez, and Philippot, 2010). These films made no reference on driving or road safety and elicited different anger intensities. Film clips were watched by participants before we asked them to complete driving sessions in which they had to detect pedestrians and cyclists. Furthermore, anger can also be characterized by specific physiological patterns that could be recorded (Kreibig, 2010). For these reasons, particular emphasis was placed in our study on emotional assessment in order to get as much feedbacks as possible on individual emotional state during and after driving. Thus, cardiac and ocular measures were recorded during the driving sessions while emotional self-assessments were carried out after each session to know in what extent all measures matched. By this way we were able to explore the relation between experienced emotional intensity and VRU detection abilities. It was also expected to highlight physiological and behavioural patterns linked with different anger intensities attempting at the same time to provide some answers about an optimum anger intensity likely to be beneficial for driving.

Using a fixed-base driving simulator we compared the effects of the size and type of traffic vehicles (i.e., normal-sized or double-sized cars or motorcycles) approaching an intersection in two different tasks. In the perceptual judgment task, passively moving participants estimated when a traffic vehicle would reach the intersection for actual arrival times (ATs) of 1, 2, or 3 s. In line with earlier findings, ATs were generally underestimated, the more so the longer the actual AT. Results revealed that vehicle size affected judgments in particular for the larger actual ATs (2 and 3 s), with double-sized vehicles then being judged as arriving earlier than normal-sized vehicles. Vehicle type, on the other hand, affected judgments at the smaller actual ATs (1 and 2 s), with cars then being judged as arriving earlier than motorcycles. In the behavioral task participants actively drove the simulator to cross the intersection by passing through a gap in a train of traffic. Analyses of the speed variations observed during the active intersection-crossing task revealed that the size and type of vehicles in the traffic train did not affect driving behavior in the same way as in the AT judgment task. First, effects were considerably smaller, affecting driving behavior only marginally. Second, effects were opposite to expectations based on AT judgments: driver approach speeds were larger (rather than smaller) when confronted with double-sized vehicles as compared to their normal-sized counterparts and when confronted with cars as compared to motorcycles. Finally, the temporality of the effects was different on the two tasks: vehicle size affected driver approach speed in the final stages of approach rather than early on, while vehicle type affected driver approach speed early on rather than later. Overall, we conclude that the active control of approach to the intersection is not based on successive judgments of traffic vehicle arrival times. These results thereby question the general belief that arrival time estimates are crucial for safe interaction with traffic.

This deliverable D4.7 is an update of D4.3 on driving control strategies, based on data monitored on the real TRANSFORMERS vehicle. This report is an update of the deliverable D4.3: Theoretical validation of the driving controls strategy and safety/stability assessment by simulation and benchmarking [1]. D4.3 discussed the difference in dynamic behaviour of a tractor-semitrailer between a conventional semi-trailer combination and one in which one of the trailer axles is driven: the hybrid on demand (HoD)-trailer. The report D4.3 focussed on the theoretical background of the HoD-trailer concept. This report serves two purposes: 1. Verification of the simulation model (developed in D4.3) using experimental results 2. Validation of the conclusions of D4.3 with respect to possible stability issues of the TRANSFORMERS vehicle, compared to conventional tractor + semi-trailer vehicles A subset of the manoeuvers that have been proposed in deliverable D6.5 [2] is tested in under sub-task4.4.4: " single lane-change, " ISO double lane-change ('chicane'), " turning manoeuver, " emergency braking. Due to technical and modelling issues, the emergency braking experimental results could not be compared with the numerical model results. The other tests have been performed successfully and showed that : 1. The numerical model of the tractor + semi-trailer combinations fits well, both for the conventional combination and the TRANSFORMERS vehicle. 2. The conclusions of D4.3 are valid for the Transformer vehicle:a. The dynamical behaviour of the hybrid on demand (HoD) combination is close to the behaviour of the conventional tractor + semi-trailer combination. b. No additional stability control measures are needed in addition to the common measures such as traction control, anti-lock braking control and drive-train logic (i.e. strategy to use the HoD-trailer). c. If, for any reason, the tractor's or semi-trailer's stability controller must be activated, the HoD-semi-trailer system should be switched off. In these cases, the energy regeneration should also be disabled.

Previous research has shown that lane-width reduction makes drivers operate vehicles closer to the center of the road whereas hard-shoulder widening induces a position farther away from the road's center. The goal of the present driving-simulator study was twofold. First, it was aimed at further investigating the respective effects of lane and shoulder width on in-lane positioning strategies, by examining vehicle distance from the center of the lane. The second aim was to assess the impact on safety of three possible cross-sectional reallocations of the width of the road (i.e., three lane-width reductions with concomitant shoulder widening at a fixed cross-sectional width) as compared to a control road. The results confirmed that lane-width reduction made participants drive closer to the road's center. However, in-lane position was affected differently by lane narrowing, depending on the traffic situation. In the absence of oncoming traffic, lane narrowing gave rise to significant shifts in the car's distance from the lane's center toward the edge line, whereas this distance remained similar across lane widths during traffic periods. When the shoulders were at least 0.50m wide, participants drove farther away from both the road center and the lane center. Road reallocation operations resulted in vehicles positioned farther away from the edge of the road and less swerving behavior, without generating higher driving speeds. Finally, it is argued that road-space reallocation may serve as a good low-cost tool for providing a recovery area for steering errors, without impairing drivers' behavior.

Eye movements analysis offers the possibility to investigate what is behind the eyes: our brain. Among the variety of activities studied by cognitive ergonomics, car driving received particular attention regarding visual exploration. Here, the four main techniques used to analyse eye movement data while driving have been applied to gaze positions analysis while negotiating bends under manual and highly automated driving. Gaze positions of eighteen drivers were recorded on a driving simulator. (1) Gaze plots and (2) areas of interest analysis based on the visual scene (without information on displayed images) did not reveal detailed differences between manual and highly automated driving, whereas (3) dynamic areas of interest and (4) dynamic point based on a dynamic element of the driving scene showed a disengagement from visual information required to steer the vehicle in bends in highly automated driving. These results help researchers to better characterize visual search in bend taking and by consequence to understand the degradations of the driving performance in highly automated driving.; L'oculométrie est une technique qui offre l'opportunité d'investiguer, au travers des mouvements des yeux, ce qui se trouve derrière : notre cerveau. L'oculométrie moderne bénéfice, entre autres domaines, à la recherche en psychologie ergonomique. Parmi la variété des situations étudiées en psychologie ergonomique, l'activité de conduite automobile a fait l'objet de nombreuses études dont un bon nombre font appel à l'oculométrie. Les analyses des données oculométriques ont progressé à mesure du développement de cette technique, et sont aujourd'hui nombreuses et abouties en ce qui concerne l'analyse des parcours oculaires sur des images statiques. En revanche, dans le cadre de l'étude de la conduite automobile, comme des activités dynamiques en général, les images présentées au conducteur sont dépendantes à la fois de l'environnement de conduite, mais aussi de ses propres actions sur le véhicule via le volant et les pédales, ce qui rend les techniques d'analyse habituelles des données oculométriques moins pertinentes. Face à cette situation, les chercheurs ayant un intérêt pour l'étude de la conduite automobile ont développé plusieurs techniques d'analyses des mouvements oculaires qui peuvent être regroupées en quatre classes de méthodes. Les quatre méthodes se définissent par rapport à l'analyse des positions du regard (1) dans un référentiel écran en deux dimensions, (2) selon des zones d'intérêts fixes définies dans ce même référentiel écran, (3) selon des zones d'intérêts dynamiques définies dans un référentiel relatif à la tâche de conduite (correspondant à un élément de la scène visuelle qui se déplace dans celle-ci) et (4) dans un référentiel défini sur un point dynamique de la scène visuelle (un point de la scène visuelle qui se déplace dans celle-ci). Afin de caractériser l'influence de la méthode d'analyse sur l'interprétation des résultats, chacune de ces quatre classes de méthode a été présentée et appliquée ici à la prise de virage en conduite automobile simulée en condition de conduite classique et en conduite hautement automatisée. En condition hautement automatisée, l'assistance maintenait le véhicule dans sa voie en agissant directement sur le volant sans aucune intervention de la part du conducteur. Dix-huit conducteurs ont pris part à une étude sur simulateur de conduite où les positions du regard ont été enregistrées. Une variabilité importante dans l'interprétation des données est apparue selon la méthode d'analyse considérée. A l'appui des résultats collectés via les quatre classes de techniques d'analyse et des connaissances relatives à la prise d'informations visuelle en virage, il apparaît qu'un point ou une zone dynamique dans la scène visuelle sont mieux à même de rendre compte des modifications des stratégies de prise d'information visuelles dans le contexte dynamique de la conduite automobile. Ces méthodes ont permis de mettre en avant et de spécifier une différence dans les prises d'informations visuelles en présence de l'assistance et comparativement à la condition non-assistée. La discussion est destinée à éclairer le lecteur au regard du choix de la technique d'analyse des mouvements oculaires en présentant les avantages et les limites de chacune des quatre classes de méthode et l'impact du choix de la méthode d'analyse des données oculaires sur l'analyse ergonomique des situations considérées et les enjeux sécuritaires associés.

The objective was to evaluate subjective estimation and objective performance of drivers depending on Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) and driving experience. Assuming that during monotonous driving performance should be impaired with alcohol at a moment of alertness decrease, the hypothesis was that this impairment would be significant greater for Young Novice Drivers (YND) than for Young Experienced Drivers (YED). 16 YND (18 years, two months of driving) and 15 YED (21 years, 3 years of driving) participated in three simulated driving sessions in which BACs were randomly assigned (0.0, 0.2 and 0.5 g/L). Every session took place between 2 and 4 pm, around one hour after the drink. The circuit represented a typical highway road, the task was to drive during 45 min and to maintain a steady speed (110 Km/h) and a stable position on the lane. After each driving session participants estimated their workload (NASA-TLX questionnaire) and their subjective alertness (Thayer checklist). Driving performance was analysed for steps of 5 min. Globally, placebo session produced higher estimation of alertness, lower estimation of time pressure, physical demand, frustration and effort than BAC sessions. Driving performance was also worse with alcohol. A decrease of alertness and an increase of physical and mental effort were noted with the time-on-task. Thus, evaluation of alertness and effort during monotonous driving task were relatively well correlated with objective performance under the influence of alcohol and with time-on-task. YND had a lower subjective alertness level and estimate to have higher mental and physical workload than YED, their subjective performance and objective driving performance showed an effect of alcohol. YED performance and subjective evaluation are clearly sensitive to alcohol but also to time-on-task (combined effect).

European Conference on Human Centred Design for Intelligent Transport Systems, LOUGHBOROUGH, ROYAUME-UNI, 30-/06/2016 - 01/07/2016; Speed is one of the essential information needed to perform correctly the primary driving task. While driving a truck, a misjudgement of speed can lead to rollover in a bend (particularly for concrete mixer trucks), jackknifing at braking, or swinging out on slippery roads [1]. In addition to visual, auditory and vestibular cues, the speedometer on the dashboard provides a more accurate speed value to the driver. The design of the speedometer is critical for road safety because it generates a very high number of glances out of the road that could overlap a time-critical event. Two main types of speedometers are currently proposed in the truck industry: analogue and digital speedometers. In the human factors literature, some studies investigated the effects of both speedometers on human behaviour. Results are mostly equivocal but it seems that the more appropriate mean of presenting the speed information to the driver depends on the task performed. A digital speedometer would be more appropriate for an absolute reading of the speed value [2]-[5], and for a relative reading task (i.e. compare to a target speed) [2], [6]. An analogue speedometer would be better for reading a dynamic speed change [6]-[8]. Moreover, the existing literature does not allow concluding whether an analogue or digital format is better for truck speedometer design. First, most studies have been conducted on cars. Compared to car driving, truck's driver eye position is higher (thus, far from the dashboard) and the difference in vehicle speed variation (due to vehicle weight) could impact speed management and control. Second, existing studies have been obtained with conventional mechanical and physical supports. Advancements in display technologies (i.e. with liquid crystal display - LCD - screens as instrument cluster) make it interesting to update the results for a more contemporary vision. This study aimed at comparing an analogue and a digital speedometer in terms of usability and distraction in simulated truck's driving on a LCD screen. 18 trucks drivers were equipped with an eye-tracker and were required to drive on a driving simulator. Results showed that reading the value of the speed (i.e. absolute reading) was faster and less distracting, and the reported cognitive effort was lower with the digital speedometer. Similarly, the digital speedometer was more efficient for a relative reading task (i.e. say if the speed value was under or over 50km/h). On the contrary, detecting if the speed was decreasing or increasing (i.e. dynamic change reading) was faster and less distracting with the analogue speedometer. Both speedometers were perceived as usable by drivers, but the global preference went to the digital speedometer. The existing results in the literature have therefore been replicated and extended to truck drivers on a LCD instrument cluster. Future researches can then rely on these results to investigate new speedometer representations that would be efficient for the three reading types.

En 2013, on estime que 40 à 50% des accidents corporels seraient dus à des défauts d'attention de la part du conducteur. Des études récentes ont mis en évidence la possibilité de détecter des états attentionnels dégradés afin de pouvoir mieux assister le conducteur ; ce thème de recherche représente donc un nouveau gisement de sécurité routière. Cette étude se concentre sur la détection de l'effort cognitif fournit par les conducteurs et cherche, par l'étude de la variation du rythme cardiaque, à identifier un indicateur d'effort sensible sur de courtes fenêtres temporelles.Chacun des 18 participants a passé 8 conditions expérimentales sur simulateur de conduite : la moitié où seule une tâche de comptage était demandée et l'autre moitié en réalisant une tâche supplémentaire de conduite sur simulateur. Il a été demandé aux participants soit d'effectuer la tâche cognitive soit de se relaxer et de ne pas prêter attention aux stimuli présentés (Effort Vs. Relaxation). Afin de réaliser la tâche de comptage, deux types de stimuli auditifs ont été présentés aux participants. Les participants ont effectué les conditions expérimentales dans des ordres partiellement contrebalancés. Le rythme cardiaque et la respiration ont été collectés.Les résultats de différents auteurs ont été répliqués y compris en conduite automobile. Dans les secondes qui suivent un effort cognitif, une légère décélération du rythme cardiaque puis une forte accélération ont été mises en évidence. A l'inverse, en condition de relaxation, une simple décélération cardiaque a été observée. Au terme de notre étude, il s'avère qu'il est possible de distinguer des patterns cardiaques d'effort et de relaxation sur de courtes fenêtre temporelle en observant la variation du rythme cardiaque moyenné sur un nombre conséquent d'épisodes. Toutefois, dans l'objectif de développer des systèmes capables de détecter en temps réel un effort cognitif important, ces dispositifs devront être capables de visualiser l'effort sur un unique évènement. Une piste intéressante consisterait à explorer la faisabilité de la suppression de l'influence de la respiration sur la variation du rythme cardiaque. Si cela s'avère efficace, des assistances pourraient ainsi permettre d'alerter le conducteur ou de pallier ses erreurs lorsque celui-ci ne peut plus assurer la tâche de conduite en raison d'un effort cognitif important.

XXVIII th Annual International Occupational Ergonomics and Safety Conference, CHICAGO, ETATS-UNIS, 09-/06/2016 - 10/06/2016; Young novice drivers have a high risk of accidents due to their lack of routine automation. It is thus expected that they are more overloaded than experienced drivers in the same situation, with an increase of workload leading to performance impairments. This could be particularly observed in very complex situations. An experiment was carried out on a static driving simulator, with 16 traditionally trained drivers (aged 18 to 20) who had their driving license within the last two months and 16 drivers (aged 21) arriving at the end of the probationary period of three years. Three situations were presented in a counterbalanced order, i.e. a simple situation (a straight national road), a moderately complex situation (the same national road with bends), and a very complex situation (with twice the bends). Subjective workload was assessed by the NASA-TLX questionnaire after each situation while objective workload was physiologically recorded with the differential between the mean heart rate during the driving activity and before the activity (rest of 10 minutes). Driving performance was measured by the number of collisions with pedestrians who suddenly crossed the road in each situation. Results showed higher scores of physiological workload for novices in very complex situation, but no difference concerning subjective workload. Novices probably underestimated their physiological state because they undervalued the task difficulty and overvalued their abilities. Moreover, for all the drivers, the increase of subjective workload degraded their performance. Therefore, driving automation acquired with experience cannot always improve performance, especially faced with an unexpected hazard that requires flexibility in the behavior.

XXVIIIth Annual International Occupational Ergonomics and Safety Conference, CHICAGO, ETATS-UNIS, 09-/06/2016 - 10/06/2016; The objective was to evaluate subjective estimation and objective performance of drivers depending on Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) and driving experience. Assuming that during monotonous driving performance should be impaired with alcohol at a moment of alertness decrease, the hypothesis was that this impairment would be significant greater for Young Novice Drivers (YND) than for Young Experienced Drivers (YED). 16 YND (18 years, two months of driving) and 15 YED (21 years, 3 years of driving) participated in three simulated driving sessions in which BACs were randomly assigned (0.0, 0.2 and 0.5 g/L). Every session took place between 2 and 4 pm, around one hour after the drink. The circuit represented a typical highway road, the task was to drive during 45 min and to maintain a steady speed (110 Km/h) and a stable position on the lane. After each driving session participants estimated their workload (NASA-TLX questionnaire) and their subjective alertness (Thayer checklist). Driving performance was analysed for steps of 5 min. Results indicated that placebo session produced higher estimation of alertness, lower estimation of time pressure, physical demand, frustration and effort than BAC sessions. Driving performance was also worse with alcohol. A decrease of alertness and an increase of physical and mental effort were noted with the time-on-task. Thus, evaluation of alertness and effort during monotonous driving task were relatively well correlated with objective performance under the influence of alcohol and with time-on-task. YND had a lower subjective alertness level and estimate to have higher mental and physical workload than YED, their subjective performance and objective driving performance showed an effect of alcohol. YED performance and subjective evaluation are clearly sensitive to alcohol but also to time-on-task (combined effect).

La conduite automobile est une activité marquée par de nombreuses différences de sexe, notamment en termes de comportements et d'accidentologie. Ce travail doctoral cherche à comprendre le rôle des stéréotypes de sexe spécifiques à la conduite automobile dans l'explication de ces différences. L'objectif des recherches est ainsi d'analyser l'effet des stéréotypes de sexe associés à la conduite automobile (SSACA) sur les comportements autorapportés et effectifs reliés à la tâche de conduite, d'une part en prenant en compte les facteurs psychosociaux susceptibles d'influencer cet effet, et d'autre part en étudiant l'effet du contexte sur ces relations grâce à l'effet de menace du stéréotype. Cette thèse montre ainsi que l'adhésion aux SSACA influence les comportements de conduite déclarés puisque, par exemple, quel que soit le sexe de l'individu, l'adhésion aux SSACA liés à un groupe de sexe est liée à une déclaration plus importante des comportements de conduite typiques de ce groupe. De plus, cette thèse met en évidence que le facteur protecteur des comportements de violations est, chez les hommes, l'adoption des valeurs féminines et, chez les femmes, le sentiment de compétence en conduite. Enfin, cette thèse montre que ces stéréotypes entrent également en jeu dans les comportements effectifs lorsqu'il s'agit de réaliser une tâche en relation avec la conduite automobile, mais que leurs effets sont différents en fonction à la fois de la consigne (menaçante ou non) et de la tâche à réaliser. En conclusion, ce travail doctoral montre que les différents comportements de conduite ne sont pas seulement dus à des différences de capacités naturelles entre les sexes, mais qu'ils peuvent aussi s'expliquer par les croyances culturelles socialement construites relatives aux différences de sexe dans la conduite automobile. The activity of driving is marked by numerous sex differences, especially with regard to behaviour and road accidents. The present doctoral research aims at understanding the role of sex stereotypes specific to driving in explaining these differences. Therefore, the objective of the research work is to analyse the impact of sex stereotypes associated with driving (SSAD) on self-reported or actual behaviour on a task relating to driving. The analysis will take into account the psycho-social factors likely to influence this impact, and will also study the impact of the context on those relationships due to the deterrent effect of the stereotype. This doctoral work thus shows that adherence to SSAD has an impact on self-reported driving behaviour; for example, whatever the sex, adherence to SSAD associated to sex is linked to more frequent reporting of typical driving behaviour for this sex. Moreover, the research highlights the fact that the protective factor of violation behaviour is, among men, the adoption of feminine values, and, among women, a sense of competence as a driver. Finally, this research work shows that those stereotypes come into play in actual behaviour when it comes down to carrynig out a task relating to driving, but that the effects are different depending on the instructions (whether threatening or not) and the tasks to be carried out. As a conclusion, this doctoral research indicates that the different driving behaviours are not only due to differences in sex natural abilities, but they can also be explained by socially constructed cultural beliefs relating to driving sex differences.

Although implementing Diesel particulate filters (DPF) and other novel aftertreatment technologies makes it possible to achieve significant reductions in particle mass emissions, it may induce the release of ultrafine particles and emissions of many other unregulated compounds. This paper focuses on (i) ultrafine particles, black carbon, BTEX, PAH, carbonyl compounds, and NO2 emissions from Euro 4 and Euro 5 Diesel and gasoline passenger cars, (ii) the influence of driving conditions (e.g., cold start, urban, rural and motorway conditions), and (iii) the impact of additive and catalysed DPF devices on vehicle emissions. Chassis dynamometer tests were conducted on four Euro 5 vehicles and two Euro 4 vehicles: gasoline vehicles with and without direct injection system and Diesel vehicles equipped with additive and catalysed particulate filters. The results showed that compared to hot-start cycles, cold-start urban cycles increased all pollutant emissions by a factor of two. The sole exception was NO2, which was reduced by a factor of 1.3–6. Particulate and black carbon emissions from the gasoline engines were significantly higher than those from the Diesel engines equipped with DPF. Moreover, the catalysed DPF emitted about 3–10 times more carbonyl compounds and particles than additive DPF, respectively, during urban driving cycles, while the additive DPF vehicles emitted 2 and 5 times more BTEX and carbonyl compounds during motorway driving cycles. Regarding particle number distribution, the motorway driving cycle induced the emission of particles smaller in diameter (mode at 15 nm) than the urban cold-start cycle (mode at 80–100 nm). The results showed a clear positive correlation between particle, black carbon, and BTEX emissions, and a negative correlation between particles and NO2.

Objective: An experiment was performed in a driving simulator to investigate the impacts of practice, trust, and interaction on manual control recovery (MCR) when employing fully automated driving (FAD). Background: To increase the use of partially or highly automated driving efficiency and to improve safety, some studies have addressed trust in driving automation and training, but few studies have focused on FAD. FAD is an autonomous system that has full control of a vehicle without any need for intervention by the driver. Method: A total of 69 drivers with a valid license practiced with FAD. They were distributed evenly across two conditions: simple practice and elaborate practice. Results: When examining emergency MCR, a correlation was found between trust and reaction time in the simple practice group (i.e., higher trust meant a longer reaction time), but not in the elaborate practice group. This result indicated that to mitigate the negative impact of overtrust on reaction time, more appropriate practice may be needed. Conclusions: Drivers should be trained in how the automated device works so as to improve MCR performance in case of an emergency. Application: The practice format used in this study could be used for the first interaction with an FAD car when acquiring such a vehicle.

2016 GSA Annual Scientific Meeting, NEW ORLEANS, LOUISIANA, ETATS-UNIS, 16-/11/2016 - 20/11/2016; Objective 1: (Required) "After attending this session participants will be able to..." : After attending the session, participants will be able to better describe driving errors made by older adults. Objective 2: (Required) "After attending this session participants will be able to..." : After attending the session, participants will be able to better understand driving errors determinants. Objective 3: "After attending this session participants will be able to..." : After attending the session, participants will be able to better discuss the different facets of driver safety. Abstract Body (Required; Limit 250 words) : The extent to which personality, deficits in specific cognitive domains, and self-assessment of cognitive and driving abilities contribute to older drivers' safety in complex real-world driving tasks is not well understood. In order to better understand driving errors made by adults being 70 years old and over a predriving assessment and an on-road test was conducted. We hypothesized that drivers over-estimating their own abilities will commit more driving errors. A convenience sample of 145 older drivers (mean age = 76 ± 4.1) completed a standardized road course conducted with a driving instructor and a human factors specialist who rated driving behaviors as well as driving performance. Participants also completed cognitive tests (UFOV, TMT A&B, Digit Symbol). They answered french versions of the big five inventory (20 items) and the CES-d depression scale (20 items) and rated their own cognitive and driving abilities. Relationships between the four domains previously described with the on-road performance will be studied through correlational analyses. Multivariate analyses will be conducted to explore the domains that can best predicted driving errors. Distinct facets of driver safety on road will be discussed. These findings will present preliminary evidence for the utility of personality assessments in identifying bias in driving self-evaluations, essential for safe self-regulation of driving.

EWGT 2015 - 18th Euro working Group in Transportation, Delft , PAYS-BAS, 14-/07/2015 - 16/07/2015; The aim of the study is to evaluate driving performance during monotonous task depending on Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC), and driving experience. Assuming that, during monotonous driving task, performance should be impaired with a BAC increased. This impairment should be more pronounced for Young Novice Drivers (YND) than for Young Experienced Drivers (YED). YND (18 years, less than two months of driving license) and YED (21 years, 3 years of driving license) were invited to participate in three simulated driving sessions separated by a minimum of 24 hours in which BACs were randomly manipulated (0.0, 0.2 and 0.5 g/L). Every experimental session took place during postprandial period at the circadian nadir. Task was to drive on a simulated typical highway road during 45 min and to maintain a steady speed (110 Km/h) and stable position on the right lane. Variation in lane position and speed were chosen as the primary outcome variables because they have been shown to be sensitive in this kind of task. Before and after each driving session, participants responded to Thayer scale (alertness and tension estimation). After each driving session they also responded to an adaptation of the NASA-TLX (NASA-Task Load Index). Speed, lane position of vehicle and Electro Dermal Activity (EDA) of the drivers were continuously recorded. Drivingperformance data were analyzed for 8 temporal intervals of 5 min (because we excluded the first temporal interval of 5 min). Results from the self-report scales showed interactions and significant differences between the two groups. No difference was observed as a function of BAC for the YND but time-on-task effect was observed. Conversely, YED's estimations showed a variation of subjective alertness, arousal and effort depending on the Alcoholic conditions. Concerning driving performance, triple interactions was obtained between temporal interval*Alcohol*Group. Both groups of young drivers appear to be sensitive on time-on-task effect and alcohol condition for different indicators used. Overall, for standard deviation of lane position YND seemed to show perturbations for the highest BAC conditions (0.5 g/l) while the YED seemed more disrupted linearly by the increase of BAC conditions (0.0; 0.2 and 0.5 g/l) and time-on-task effect. EDA show also differences. As expected, performance impaired with an increased BAC, and the first effect of fatigue appears in temporal window between 15 to 30 min for different indicators and for both groups. This decrease of performance with alcohol was already present for BAC 0.2 for both groups.

Young Researchers Seminar, ROME, ITALIE, 17-/06/2015 - 19/06/2015; Focused on the source of anger: What about the detection of pedestrians? Impact of anger on the pedestrian detection and the car-following performance

YRS 2015 - Young Researchers Seminar, Rome, Italie, 17-/06/2015 - 19/06/2015; Accidents statistics, show that older drivers are over-represented in intersection accidents, especially when turning left. Our study aims at better understanding how does ageing affects the driving abilities of elderly drivers in this particular situation. Three groups participates, young (25-35 years), younger-old (60-69 years) and older-old (70 and more) took part in the experiment. The experiment consisted in two parts. Perceptual, cognitive and motor abilities were assessed in the first one.The second one took place on a driving simulator. Participants had to decide if they could perform a left turn at intersections. Traffic conditions such as speed, number of vehicles and direction of the traffic were manipulated. Statistical analysis showed the classicals age-related perceptual, cognitive and physical declines. With regards to driving performance, elderly drivers accepted fewer left-turn than younger drivers, but exhibited more risky behaviors. They initiated the maneuvers later, had shorter safety margins and took more risky decisions. Two patterns emerge from correlations between test results and driving behavior. Driving performances of young people showed that both their cognitive - inhibition and working memory - and perceptual abilities - visual scanning and vision - correlated with driving performances, but not their motor abilities. As for elderly people, cognitive - processing speed, inhibition and updating - and motor abilities - motor flexibility - were connected to driving performance, but not their perceptual abilities. Regressions are being processed in order to detail the relationships between the different variables. Results will determine which are the predictors of risky behavior among elderly in intersection.

International Symposium on Road Safety Behaviour Measurements and Indicators, Bruxelles, Belgique, 23-/04/2015 - 23/04/2015; The French government (DSCR) sponsored the S_VRAI project (Saving Lives through Road Incident Analysis Feedback) to answer the question: Can incident (namely dangerous driving situation) collection and analysis help to avoid accidents? A recording device designed by IFSTTAR-LMA, called EMMA, was used to detect situations during which the vehicle reaches high dynamics demands in longitudinal, lateral or combined directions. 50 EMMA were deployed for one year from autumn 2012 on public fleets in the North, Center and South of France. EMMA acquires data from internal accelerometers and gyro-meters, GPS trajectory and speed, and data available on vehicle CAN bus. The data are analyzed in real-time to detect when acceleration signals exceed some thresholds, modulated by vehicle speed. The data acquired 30s before and 15s after the trigger are then stored and sent automatically to a secured server. The data collection comprises also the itinerary paths and information illustrating the dynamic demands for each travel. All legal conditions to implement EDR were respected in accordance to European regulations. The whole data collection produced 3052 itineraries and 339 incidents (one every 340 km or 5 hours). 25% of the incidents concern longitudinal accelerations and 70% lateral, including 70% on right hand turns.

The allocation of overt visual attention is investigated in a multi-task and dynamical situation: driving. The Expectancy-Value model of attention allocation stipulates that visual exploration depends on the expectancy and the value of the task-related information available in each Area Of Interest (AOI). We consider the approach to an intersection as a multi-task situation where two subtasks are involved: vehicle control and interactions with other drivers. Each of these subtasks is associated with some specific visual information present in the associated AOIs: the driver's lane and the intersecting road at the intersection. An experiment was conducted in a driving simulator, coupled with a head-mounted eye-tracker. The intersecting road's AOI's Expectancy was manipulated with the traffic density, and its Value was manipulated with the priority rule before the intersection (stop, yield, and priority). The distribution of visual attention and the dynamics of visual exploration were analyzed on 20 participants, taking into account the dwell time in the AOIs associated to the driving subtasks, and the gaze transitions between the AOIs. The results suggest that the visual attention to intersecting roads varied with the priority rule, and impacted the visual attention associated with the vehicle control subtask. In addition, a quantitative model was used to improve the understanding of the Expectancy and Value factors. The comparison of the data with the model's predictions enables quantifying the observed differences between the experimental factors. Finally, the results associated with the traffic density are discussed in relation to the nature of the relevant information while approaching the intersection.

European Conference of Psychology, Milan, Italie, 07-/07/2015 - 10/07/2015; Accidents statistics show that older drivers are over-represented in intersection accidents, especially when turning left. Our study aims at better understanding how ageing affects the driving abilities of elderly drivers in this situation. Three groups of drivers, young (25-35 years), younger-old (60-69 years), and older-old (70 and more) took part in the study. The experiment consisted in two parts. Perceptual, cognitive and motor abilities were assessed in the first one. The second one took place on a driving simulator. Participants had to decide if they could perform a left turn at intersections. Traffic conditions were varied. Statistical analysis showed the classical age-related perceptual, cognitive and physical declines. With regard to driving performance, elderly drivers accepted fewer left-turns than younger drivers, but exhibited more risky behaviors, especially when traffic was complex. Two patterns emerged from correlations between test results and driving behavior. Driving performances of young people showed that both their cognitive and perceptual abilities correlated with driving performances, but not their motor abilities. As for elderly people, cognitive and motor abilities were connected to driving performance, but not their perceptual abilities. Regressions are being processed in order to detail the relationships between the different variables. Results will determine the most relevant predictors of risky behaviors among elderly drivers at intersections.

Sex and age differences are particularly pronounced in car accidents. Current psychological research is exploring the relationship between risky driving and compliance with sex stereotypes, notably conformity with social expectations concerning masculinity. Some studies have already shown that sex stereotypes associated with driving (SSAD) may influence driving behaviors. The aim of this research was to explore the participants' sex and age differences in SSAD endorsement. A questionnaire was developed and validated on four dimensions of SSAD: male's driving skills and female's compliance with traffic rules, courtesy behind the wheel, and risk avoidance in driving. SSAD endorsement was measured for 291 licensed drivers from 18 to 64 years of age. Results revealed that females endorsed the female's risk avoidance stereotype more (p < .05), whereas males endorsed the male drivers (driving skills) stereotype more (p < .05). Results also revealed that the endorsement of male's driving skills decreases with age (p < .01) and the endorsement of female's courtesy increases with age among all participants (p = .01), while the endorsement of female's compliance with traffic rules increases with age only among female participants (p < .05). The results are discussed in terms of in-group/out-group relations and sex and age differences.; Les différences de sexe et d'âge sont particulièrement prononcées dans des accidents routiers. La recherche psychologique actuelle explore la relation entre la conduite dangereuse et la conformité aux stéréotypes de sexe, notamment la conformité avec les attentes sociales concernant la masculinité. Certaines études ont déjà montré que les stéréotypes de sexe associés à la conduite (SSAD) peuvent influencer les comportements de conduite. L'objectif de cette recherche est d'explorer les différences de sexe et d'âge dans l'adhésion aux SSAD. Un questionnaire a été élaboré et validé sur les quatre dimensions de la SSAD: la compétence de conduite des hommes et la conformité avec les règles routières, la courtoisie au volant, et l'évitement des risques dans la conduite des femmes. L'adhésion aux SSAD a été mesurée chez 291 participants de 18 à 64 ans titulaires du permis de conduire. Les résultats ont révélé que les femmes adhèrent plus au le stéréotype de la femme évitant le risque (p

International audience; The aim of this review is to identify the most representative measures of subjective and objective mental workload in driving, and to understand how the subjective and objective levels of mental workload influence the performance as a function of situation complexity and driving experience, i.e., to verify whether the increase of situation complexity and the lack of experience increase the subjective and physiological levels of mental workload and lead to driving performance impairments. This review will be useful to both researchers designing an experimental study of mental workload and to designers of drivers' training content. In the first part, we will broach the theoretical approach with two factors of mental workload and performance, i.e., situation complexity and driving experience. Indeed, a low complex situation (e.g., highways), or conversely a high complex situation (e.g., town) can provoke an overload. Additionally, performing the driving tasks implies producing a high effort for novice drivers who have not totally automated the driving activity. In the second part, we will focus on subjective measures of mental workload. A comparison of questionnaires usually used in driving will allow identifying the most appropriate ones as a function of different criteria. Moreover, we will review the empirical studies to verify if the subjective level of mental workload is high in simple and very complex situations, especially for novice drivers compared to the experienced ones. In the third part, we will focus on physiological measures. A comparison of physiological indicators will be realized in order to identify the most correlated to mental workload. An empirical review will also take the effect of situation complexity and experience on these physiological indicators into consideration. Finally, a more nuanced comparison between subjective and physiological measures will be established from the impact on situation complexity and experience.

RSS2015 - Road Safety & Simulation International Conference, Orlando, ETATS-UNIS, 06-/10/2014 - 08/10/2015; The aim of the present study is to evaluate driving performance during monotonous task and demanding low cognitive resources as a function of Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC), and driving experience. Monotony is associated to environments characterized by a repetitive way responsible for increase of fatigue and decrease of alertness, cognitive interest, and responsiveness. Alcohol consumption impairs the skills necessary for safe driving and a linear relationship has been demonstrated between BAC and crash risk, in particular for young drivers. Assuming that, during monotonous driving task, performance should be impaired with a BAC increased, this impairment should be significant earlier for Young Novice Drivers (YND) than for Young Experienced Drivers (YED). YND (18 years, less than two months of driving license) and YED (21 years, 3 years of driving license) were invited to participate in three simulated driving sessions separated by a minimum of 24 hours in which BACs were randomly manipulated (0.0, 0.2 and 0.5 g/L). Every experimental session was between 1:45 and 3:45 pm during postprandial period, around one hour after the drink. The task consisted to drive on a circuit representing typical highway road during 45 min and to maintain a steady speed (110 Km/h) and a stable position on the right lane. Before and after each driving session, participants responded to Thayer scale (subjective alertness). After each driving session they also responded to an adaptation of the NASA-TLX (NASA-Task Load Index). Speed and lane position were continuously recorded. Driving performance data were analyzed for 8 time steps of 5-min because we excluded the first five minute of driving. Results from the self-report scales showed triple interaction and significant differences between the two groups of drivers. Indeed, for the NASA-TLX and the Thayer alertness index, no difference was observed as a function of BAC for YND but a time-on-task effect was obtained. Conversely, for YED, results showed a linear increase of subjective alertness and perceived effort depending on the BAC conditions. Concerning driving performance, effect of alcohol, time-on-task, group and triple interaction were obtained. Both groups of young drivers appeared to be sensitive to time-on-task and to alcohol condition for different driving performance indicators (SDLP, LP, SDSP, MSD) but they showed differences. Indeed, overall the YND seemed to show perturbations in the highest BAC condition (0.5 g/l) while the YED seemed disrupted more linearly by the increase of BAC (0.0, 0.2 and 0.5 g/l) and time-on-task. As expected, during monotonous driving task, performance impaired with a BAC increase, and the first effect of fatigue appears in temporal window of 10 to 30 min for different indicators and for both groups. This decrease of performance with alcohol was already observed for BAC 0.2 for both groups. Moreover, YED seemed to be more aware of the alcohol effect on their driving performance than YND as suggested by their respective subjective evaluations, and YND seemed to use more regulatory mechanisms than YED to preserve their driving performance.

The aim of the present paper is to identify the effect of situation complexity and driving experience on performance through subjective and objective levels of tension. The main contribution of this paper to the Cognitive Ergonomics field consists in the identification of accidents' factors of young drivers faced to a stressful event. Thirty-two drivers (16 novices vs. 16 more experienced) were randomly assigned to three levels of situation complexity (simple, moderately complex and very complex) in a driving simulator. Physiological and subjective levels of tension were respectively associated to "pedestrian crossings" events and to the whole situations. Driving performance corresponded to reaction times and to collisions' number with the pedestrians. Results showed that novice drivers had weaker performance than the more experienced once, even though their high level of objective and subjective tension due to situation complexity improved their performance. Therefore, target driving assistance systems to deal with hazard events could reduce road accidents among young novice drivers.

The aim of the present study is to identify the effects of subjective and objective workload on driving performance, as a function of situation complexity and driving practice. Driving performance can be maintained even in complex situations, when compensatory strategies are set up with practice to reduce the level of workload. However, when the situation is low demanding, or inversely high demanding, the level of workload is too high, and performance is impaired, notably for novice drivers who have a lack of driving automation. Our main hypothesis is thus that the increase of situation complexity and the lack of experience increase both subjective and objective workload, leading to performance impairments. Thirty-two young drivers (16 novice drivers who obtained their driving license within the last two months aged 18, and 16 drivers arriving at the end of the three-year probationary period and aged 21) were randomly assigned to three situations (simple, moderately complex and very complex) in a driving simulator. In each situation, three scenarios implied a pedestrian who crossed the road in front of the participant. Self-reported levels of workload during the pedestrian crossings were collected by the NASA-TLX questionnaire between each situation. Objective workload was assessed by the differential heart rate between rest periods (10 min between each situation) and driving periods. Driving performance corresponded to the number of collisions with the pedestrians. Four binomial regressions analyses are undergoing: the effect of situation complexity and driving experience on subjective workload, the effect of situation complexity and driving experience on objective workload, the effect of subjective workload on driving performance, and the effect of objective workload on driving performance. The comparison between subjective and objective data will reveal if drivers overvalued or undervalued their physiological state. Moreover, it will indicate if drivers were more influenced by their physiological state or by their feeling, as a function of situation complexity and driving experience. The first results will be presented and will be useful to improve driving training.

WIiT Paris 2014: Women's Issues in Transportation, 5th International Conference on Women's Issues in Transportation - Bridging the Gap, Paris, FRANCE, 14-/04/2014 - 16/04/2014; Globally, men, and particularly young men, are involved in more road traffic crashes than women, which may be due to a greater tendency to engage in risky behaviors. Understanding and explaining this "gender specificity" in risky behaviors, specifically among young drivers, has become a major public-health issue. The present study extends research on the effect of gender identity on risky driving behaviors by investigating the effect of sex, sex-stereotype conformity and gender group identification on self-reported driving behaviors among young drivers. 75 young drivers (28 males, 47 females) filled in a form including a series of scales assessing gender group identification by measuring three components of gender identity (typicality, contentedness and centrality), a French version of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, an extended version of the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (assessing violations, dangerous and inattention errors and positive behaviors) and questions about mobility and accident history. The effects were tested on outcome variables by using hierarchical regression analysis. It was found that sex (being female) only predicted the inexperience errors, while the femininity score negatively predicted the number of accidents. No effects of maleness and masculinity were observed in other driver behaviors, contrary to what was expected. Gender identity variables only had an effect among males, with typicality positively predicting dangerous errors and contentedness negatively predicting positive behaviors. Lastly, results showed that gender identification appears to be associated with low conformity to feminine stereotypes among males. Hypotheses were not confirmed but results underlined the importance of taking gender identity variables into account when explaining risk-taking differences between and within gender groups. Implications of these results are discussed.

Driving simulators are routinely used by researchers to study driver behavior. However, (limited) previous research has shown that the user gender may modify the perception, or even usability of these devices. For example, [Mourant 00] shows that men and women have different sensitivity to simulator sickness. These differences are liable to introduce biases in behavior studies and other virtual reality applications such as driver training. The validity of driving simulators depends on a number of factors, such as platform dynamics or 3D-database realism. In our research, we focus on simulated traffic behavior. Although there is a huge literature on traffic simulation, its main purpose has been to study capacity, security or recently environmental impact of traffic. Hence, the use of traffic simulation models in virtual reality devices, where the entities interact with users, has not been validated. In this paper, we study how users perceive virtual entities, focusing on the role of gender. An experiment has been developed to evaluate the users perception of the driving simulator and of the simulated drivers, using questionnaires and user behavior data. We use the well-known presence concept - developed by [Witmer 98] - to assess the overall validity, and an ad hoc questionnaire to assess the virtual entities behavior credibility. We propose a methodology including a set of tools and data processing units enabling inter-human and virtual agents behavior comparison. We have found very few significant correlation between driving traces, the perception of the virtual environment and background questionnaires, including gender, driving behavior (see [Reason 90]), and immersion tendency, which seems to indicate that the Archisim driving simulator does not induce gender bias, and that the virtual drivers replicate in the same way men and women behavior. This study calls for further evaluation of the impact of age on the use of driving simulators.

This study used data from 3D Inertial Measurement Unit (accelerometers/gyroscopes) mounted on the Powered Two Wheelers (PTW) to analyze and classify PTW rider’s behavior. In our work, we hypothesize that by learning riding patterns, useful information pertaining to the conditions of riding environment can be provided for riders in order to assist them on the one hand, and on the other hand, we can provide efficient tools that can be exploited in a more general aim of designing expert systems to aid the researchers in performing an in-depth study of PTW rider’s activity rider’s activity in these specific situations. Therefore, the riding pattern recognition problem is formulated as a classification problem aiming to identify the class of the riding situation namely, Straight Line (SL), Right Turn (RT), Left Turn (LT), Round About (RA) and STop (ST). A key issue in the design of such systems is that in the first stage, six machine learning techniques are used as single classifiers and in the second stage these classifiers are combined to constitute a multi-expert system. Two main strategies are applied for combining classifiers: fusion based on majority voting rule and fusion based on Bayesian formalism.

WIiT Paris 2014: Women's Issues in Transportation, 5th International Conference on Women's Issues in Transportation - Bridging the Gap, Paris, FRANCE, 14-/04/2014 - 16/04/2014; Gender differences in driving accidentology are actually particularly explained in the literature by the conformity to gender stereotypes, notably the association of risk-taking with social expectations concerning masculinity. To date, no research was interested in the effect of the perception of men and women drivers (PMWD) on driving behaviors. The aim of this research was to create a questionnaire measuring PMWD among young French adults. The PMWD was measured on 108 participants (33 men and 75 women), from 18 to 29 years old. Principal component analyses indicated that the organization and content of the perception of men drivers differed from the organization of the perception of women driver. The results are discussed in terms of in-group/out-group relations in the PMWD.

An experiment was conducted in a driving simulator to test how eye-movements patterns evolve over time according to the decision-making processes involved in a driving task. Participants had to drive up to crossroads and decide to stop or not. The decision-making task was considered as the succession of two phases associated with cognitive processes: Differentiation (leading to a prior decision) and Consolidation (leading to a final decision). Road signs (Stop, Priority and GiveWay) varied across situations, and the stopping behavior (Go and NoGo) was recorded. Saccade amplitudes and fixation durations were analyzed. Specific patterns were found for each condition in accordance with the associated processes: high visual exploration (larger saccade amplitudes and shorter fixation durations) for the Differentiation phase, and lower visual exploration (smaller saccades and longer fixations) for the Consolidation phase. These results support that eye-movements can provide good indexes of underlying processes occurring during a decision-making task in an everyday context.