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We aimed to assess whether the environmental impacts in terms of global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential (AP), eutrophication potential (EP), and land occupation (LO) of beef can be decreased when ecosystem and cultural/provisioning services are included in the evaluation. We used four Italian production systems: Fat, with beef imported calves kept in confinement, CoCaI, with beef cows and calves kept in confinement, SpEx, with beef cows and calves kept on pasture and finishing conducted in confinement, and Pod, with Podolian cows and calves kept on pasture and finishing conducted in confinement. After the economic allocation, the GWP of system Pod decreased considerably and showed values lower than those computed for systems CoCaI and SpEx (P &lt, 0.05 and P &lt, 0.001, respectively). System Pod showed the lowest AP and EP as compared with all the other systems (P &lt, 0.01). Systems Fat and CoCaI showed the smallest LO, with values lower than systems Pod (P &lt, 0.05) and SpEx (P &lt, 0.001). We conclude that the environmental impacts of extensive and local beef production systems in terms of GWP, AP, and EP was markedly reduced when the provision of accessory services was included in the calculation. Conversely, LO did not markedly change due to the high absolute values needed to allow pasture-based feeding. The estimation of additional positive aspects linked to the use of natural pastures, such as removal of carbon dioxide, increased biodiversity, and exploitation of feeds nonedible by humans, may allow a further reduction of LO.

In western countries buffaloes are emerging as an alternative species for dairy product differentiation. In the near future dairy enterprises will have to meet increasing environmental regulations. Life Cycle Assessment has been widely used to assess the environmental impact of different milk production systems. We aimed to examine the environmental consequences of two dairy buffalo heifer farming systems using the Life Cycle Assessment approach. The primary data were collected from 32 subjects aged 7–8 months at the start of the experiment until they reached the age of puberty in about 12 months (i.e. at the age of 19–20 months). Sixteen animals were group-housed and confined in an indoor slatted floor pen (4 m2/animal) with an outdoor paddock (4 m2/animal); 16 others free-ranged on a Mediterranean natural pasture. The environmental charges for global warming potential expressed in terms of total emissions of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2-eq) was 35.7% less in the free-ranging system as compared with the confined system. The main source of pollution for the confined system was biogenic methane (total amount produced = 2012 kg CO2-eq) followed by CO2 from fossil fuels (total amount produced = 1006 kg CO2-eq). The environmental charges for acidification potential, eutrophication potential and non-renewable energy use were 86.3%. 60.0% and 81.4% lower in the free-ranging system compared with the confined system, respectively. In the confined system the largest pollutant in terms of acidification potential was ammonia, whereas nitrate leaching in water (total amount produced = 3311 g SO2-eq) and the use of crude oil (total amount consumed = 5684 MJ-eq) were the most relevant for eutrophication potential and non-renewable energy use, respectively. Our results represent the first example of study comparing the environmental impact of an intensive dairy farming system with an alternative natural pasture based system in the Mediterranean region and suggest that the conduction of the unproductive part of the cycle on natural pasture can promote the reduction of several sources of pollution both in atmosphere and in water. Conversely, land occupation was higher in the free-ranging system as compared with the confined system (20,349 vs 1381 m2 year, respectively). However, the software and the database used for this calculation only considered duration of land use and yield per area unit, whereas no relevance was given to the quality of land use in terms of animal welfare promotion, contribution to biodiversity conservation, and maintenance of economically active social communities. Therefore, we suggest that the estimation of the impact categories related to land occupation would include aspects concerning the nature of the land.

The aim of this paper was to examine the environmental consequences of raising buffalo calves, as assessed by life cycle assessment. Life cycle assessment has been widely used to assess the environmental impact of different livestock production systems. The primary data were collected from 32 animals aged 0-90 days. Calves were allowed to uptake colostrum before separation from their mothers within 24-h after birth. After separation, the animals were kept individually (1 x 2 m) for 8 weeks and then housed in groups of 8 in straw-bedded pens (5 x 8 m). According to the results of the analysis, the contributions from all calves to global warming potential, acidification potential, eutrophication potential, non-renewable energy use was high. In particular, the impact generated from global warm potential was 7 kg CO2 – eq per day, and the impact of non-renewable energy use was 38 MJ – eq per day. Our results estimated for the first time the environmental impact generated from buffalo calves. We conclude that the strategies to mitigate the effects on the environment impact must start from the birth of the buffalo calves and then continue throughout its life cycle.

This review deals with the behaviour of river buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis), in confinement and in extensive conditions, also focusing on the effects of different housing and rearing conditions on their welfare. The behavioural repertoire expressed by buffaloes in extensive and intensive conditions is similar to those displayed by other domestic ruminants. However, through natural selection, buffaloes have also acquired several morphological, physiological and behavioural (i.e. wallowing) adaptations to hot climatic conditions. Buffaloes kept in intensive conditions and having no access to pasture and water for wallowing extend their periods of idling and are less often involved in investigative activities. Confinement is also associated with a reduction of space; however, no specific studies have been carried out to determine the specific requirements of this species. Space restriction can adversely affect various aspects of buffalo welfare, such as health (increased levels of lesions and injuries), social behaviour (increased number of agonistic interactions) and heat dissipation. The buffaloes, originating from tropical areas, are well adapted to large variations in food availability and quality, and to dietetic unbalances. As to human animal relationship, it has been observed that the incidence of stepping and kicking behaviour of buffaloes in the milking parlour is positively correlated with the frequency of oxytocin injections, whereas the frequency of positive stockperson interactions with the animals such as talking quietly, petting and gentle touching are negatively correlated with the number of kicks during milking. Data from farms where both dairy cattle and buffaloes are present show that avoidance distance measured in the pen is lower in buffaloes than in cattle. This may be attributed to the fact that buffaloes are generally recognised to be curious animals. Finally, the effects of different farming practices on animal-related indicators are described. However, these measures should be integrated into a monitoring protocol, such as the Welfare Quality® scheme, to reliably assess buffalo welfare in the current intensive farming conditions.

Buffalo intensive husbandry represents the most lucrative dairy activity in Campania Region. The main forage crop system used in this area are based on winter Italian reygrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) and spring corn (Zea mays L.). The continuous growing of this crops stressed the soil with a consequent reduction of yield potential. The experiment aimed to assess the agronomic and nutritive feeding value of Italian ryegrasscorn vs other cropping systems (models) based on double rotated legumes and graminaceous crops grown under irrigated and rainfed water supply.

Forage availability with low cost of production is the main farmer requisite for obtaining a competitive husbandry dairy product in the market. Cropping system for silage consumption differently impact the cost of Milk Feeding Unit (MFU) and sustainable agronomic cultivation of herbage production. The experiment aimed to assess the analytical cost of MFU per hectare in four forage cropping system models based on two crops per year bred under irrigated and rainfed condition in a Mediterranean site with intensive buffaloes breeding pressure.

Welfare Quality® is the acronym of an European research project focussing on the integration of animal welfare in the food quality chain: from public concern to improved welfare and transparent quality. The project aims to accommodate societal concerns and market demands, to develop reliable on-farm monitoring systems, product information systems, and practical species-specific strategies to improve animal welfare. Forty-four institutes and universities, representing 20 countries participate in this integrated research project concerning 3 animal species (cattle, pigs and chicken). From 2007 dairy buffalo has been also included in the list. Welfare Quality® has been co-financed by the European Commission, within the 6th Framework Programme. In this paper the development of a monitoring system to assess buffalo welfare is described.

Sixteen pluriparous lactating buffaloes were divided in two groups homogeneous for parity, lactation stage, milk yield and weight. The diets assigned to two groups, based on maize silage (M group) and sorghum silage (S group), had the same energy-protein level (0.90 Milk FU/kg DM and 155 g/kg DM of crude protein). Five records of milk yield and quality during lactation were carried out. The physical-chemical characteristics (pH, fat, protein, lactose and urea), somatic cell count, coagulation properties and nutritional parameters (cholesterol, alfa tocopherol, 13 cis and trans retinol and 13 cis/trans retinol ratio) were analysed. Statistical analysis was performed using a factorial model. The average daily milk yield during experimental period was similar: 9.29 and 9.55 kg respectively in M and S groups. Fat and protein content were not different, while the urea content was significantly different varying from 39.13 mg/dl in M group to 45.55 mg/dl in S group. The coagulation properties, the estimated Mozzarella yield, somatic cell count and the nutritional parameters analysed were not different between the two groups. These results indicate that the sorghum silage diet utilised did not affect the milk yield and quality, then it could be adopted in lactating buffaloes.

In the present review some animal-related indicators, possibly relevant for a monitoring scheme of buffalo cow welfareat the farm level, are suggested. The indicators are discussed on the basis of their validity (meaningful with respect toanimal welfare), reliability (reflecting the tendency to give the same results on repeated measurements) and feasibility(concerning time and money consume). The attention was focused on the following indicators: excessive thinning or fatteningassessed with Body Condition Score (BCS) systems; cleanliness; lameness; resting, social, oral abnormalbehaviours; injuries; stockmanship; animal-human relationship; positive indicators (diversity of lying postures,allogrooming, etc.). We have concluded that some of the indicators validated for cattle could be conveniently applied tobuffaloes without changes (e.g. injuries and avoidance distance), while others should be appropriately adjusted to thisspecies (e.g. BCS, cleanliness, housing factors). In addition, further studies are needed either to find reliable and feasibleregistration methods for some indicators (e.g. aggressive and resting behaviours) or to identify additional parametersspecific for buffaloes (e.g. prevalence of buffalo cows injected with oxytocin during milking as an indicator of thequality of human-animal relationship).

4 cannulated buffalo milking cows were administered two different diets with the same energy and protein content based on maize silage (diet G1) and sorghum silage (diet G2). Total viable bacteria, cellulolytic and xilanolytic bacteria, fungi, protozoa and pH were determined on whole rumen content samples. Total viable bacteria, xilanolytic bacteria, fungi, protozoa counts and pH values did not show any significant difference between the two diets. Only the values regarding cellulolytic bacteria showed the tendency (P≤0,10) to be higher in diet G2 in comparison with diet G1. This fact was probably due to a lower content of indigestible fiber in diet G2 with respect to diet G1 (ADF 15.6 vs. 22.4 respectively).

NRAMP1 (natural-resistance-associated macrophage protein) gene influences the initial phase of bacterial cellular infections, regulating macrophage activation. Recent literature on buffalo has attempted to associate the genotypes at the polymorphic microsatellite, that is located in the 3'-UTR of the gene, with either susceptibility to brucellosis or improved macrophage function. However, contradictory results were reported. In the present work, we have sequenced the whole coding region, as well as part of the introns and UTRs, of the NRAMP1 gene in 49 Mediterranean buffaloes, including both serologically positive and negative animals to Brucella abortus test. We have detected 12 mutations. Nineteen haplotypes were built from the detected variant alleles, so demonstrating the high variability of this gene in buffalo, but no significant differences in haplotype frequencies were found between serologically positive/negative animals.

On two farms, three milking groups of buffalo cows were used to assess the consistency of entrance order and the preference for one side of the milking parlour. On Farm 1 (F1) all animals were primiparous (n=57). On Farm 2, three primiparous, 16 secondiparous and 36 multiparous cows (range 1–8) constituted group F2G1; whereas group F2G2 had 12 primiparous, 10 secondiparous and 14 multiparous cows (range 1–10). Animals were milked in auto-tandem milking parlours (2×5 and 2×6 for Farms 1 and 2, respectively). For each cow, entrance order into milking parlour, side where she was milked, milk yield, time and duration of milking were recorded. These data were derived from the computerised identification of cows. The sequence in which the cows entered the milking parlour ranged from 1 to 57 for group F1, from 1 to 55 for group F2G1 and from 1 to 36 for group F2G2. The analysis of data was conducted on 130, 120 and 92 consecutive milkings for groups F1, F2G1 and F2G2, respectively. Kendall's coefficients of concordance showed a strong constancy of the entrance order into milking parlour for groups F1 (W=0·658; χ2=4792·81; PW=0·779; χ2=5046·81; PW=0·624; χ2=2030·48; Prs=−0·221 and rs=−0·215; Prs=−0·265; Prs=0·334; Prs=−0·319; Prs=−0·325; P

This study quantifies the environmental impact of milk production of Italian Mediterranean buffaloes and points out the farm characteristics that mainly affect their environmental performance. Life cycle assessment was applied in a sample of 6 farms. The functional unit was 1kg of normalized buffalo milk (LBN), with a reference milk fat and protein content of 8.3 and 4.73%, respectively. The system boundaries included the agricultural phase of the buffalo milk chain from cradle to farm gate. An economic criterion was adopted to allocate the impacts on milk production. Impact categories investigated were global warming (GW), abiotic depletion (AD), photochemical ozone formation (PO), acidification (AC), and eutrophication (EU). The contribution to the total results of the following farm activities were investigated: (1) on-farm energy consumption, (2) manure management, (3) manure application, (4) on-farm feed production (comprising production and application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides), (5) purchased feed production, (6) enteric fermentation, and (7) transport of purchased feeds, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides from producers to farms. Global warming associated with 1kg of LBN resulted in 5.07kg of CO 2 Eq [coefficient of variation (CV)=21.9%], AD was 3.5×10 −3 kg of Sb Eq (CV=51.7%), PO was 6.8×10 −4 kg of C 2 H 4 Eq (CV=28.8%), AC was 6.5×10 −2 kg of SO 2 Eq (CV=30.3%), and EU was 3.3×10 −2 kg of PO 4 3− Eq (CV=36.5%). The contribution of enteric fermentation and manure application to GW is 37 and 20%, respectively; on-farm consumption, on-farm feed production, and purchased feed production are the main contributors to AD; about 70% of PO is due to enteric fermentation; manure management and manure application are responsible for 55 and 25% of AC and 25 and 55% of EU, respectively. Methane and N 2 O are responsible for 44 and 43% of GW, respectively. Crude oil consumption is responsible for about 72% of AD; contribution of CH 4 to PO is 77%; NH 3 is the main contributor to AC (92%); NO 3 − and NH 3 are responsible for 55 and 41% of EU, respectively; contribution of P to EU is only 3.2%. The main characteristics explaining the significant variability of life cycle assessment are milk productivity and amount of purchased feed per kilogram of LBN. Improvement of LBN production per buffalo cow is the main strategy for reducing GW and PO; improvement of the efficiency of feed use is the strategy proposed for mitigating AD, PO, AC, and EU.

From February to August 2007 the effect of rearing system (confined (C) v. free ranging (FR)) and season (spring v. summer) was evaluated on behaviour, immune and blood parameters and beef production (experiment 1). From February to August 2008, the effect of rearing system was only evaluated on beef production (experiment 2). A total of 12 Podolian young bulls were used each year. They were slaughtered at 18 and 15 months of age in 2007 and 2008, respectively. Herbage mass and pasture composition were monitored during the 2 years. Pasture availability, in terms of herbage mass and composition, as well as its seasonal development, was similar in the 2 years. In the first experiment, FR animals spent more time walking (P < 0.05), feeding (P < 0.001) and standing (P < 0.01) and showed a lower number of agonistic (P < 0.05) and non-agonistic social interaction than C animals (P < 0.01). Significant lower concentrations of serum urea nitrogen (P < 0.001) and creatinine (P < 0.10) in FR animals indicated a lower protein nutritional status due to inadequate protein availability at pasture. As a consequence, average daily gains (P < 0.05), slaughter weight (P < 0.05) and body condition score (P < 0.01) were lower in grazing animals as compared with C bulls. Cellular immune responsiveness was higher in FR animals (P < 0.05). Similarly, antibody titre to keyhole limpet hemocyanin was higher in FR bulls at the 2nd and 3rd month after antigen injection (P < 0.05), whereas it tended to be higher at the 4th month (P < 0.10). In both experiments, grazing negatively affected meat colour in terms of lightness. Eighteen-month-old bulls also showed lower final weight, weight gain and body conditions when kept outdoor: a possible consequence of nutrient deficits, as suggested by the metabolic status of FR animals. The same animals, however, benefited from FR in terms of natural behaviour expression and immune responsiveness. When the experiment was replicated the subsequent year, on animals slaughtered at 15 months of age, no differences between the performances of FR and C animals were detected. The earlier slaughter age system was also proportionally less dependent on external inputs as grazing was not extended to the dry season when herbage mass availability was lower.

This study aimed to describe the behaviour of Podolian breed, a semiwild cattle breed kept in a natural environment (as either a small group of young bulls or cows within a family herd), and the interaction of these animals with the environment in terms of ingestion from natural pastures. Diurnal grazing behavioural pattern was monitored through continuous focal animal recording method. The activity budget of free-ranging animals was characterized by high locomotor and feeding activities. They exhibited a high degree of adaptability to the local phytocoenosis with high levels of ferns' and tree foliage intakes performed by cows and the selection of a diet more nutritious than pasture performed by young bulls. These results along with the low levels of agonistic interactions recorded in the two experiments suggest that extensive systems based on grazing allow social stability and provide a natural environment for the expression of cattle species-specific behaviour.

The present paper addresses the issue of buffalo welfare. Firstly, the biological characteristics and behavioural needs of buffalo are considered. Subsequently, the effects of intensive farming and some animalrelated indicators, to be used for a monitoring scheme of buffalo welfare at farm level, are described. The attention was focused on the following indicators: excessive thinning or fattening assessed with Body Condition Score (BCS) systems; cleanliness (the presence of mud may be considered positively, whereas a thick and compact layer of dung may be regarded negatively); health status (lameness, hoof overgrowth, injuries, etc.); social, aggressive, oral abnormal behaviours; animal-human relationship (avoidance distance at manger); positive indicators (qualitative assessment of behaviour, etc.); housing factors. The indicators are discussed on the basis of their validity (meaningful with respect to animal welfare), reliability (reflecting the tendency to give the same results on repeated measurements) and feasibility (concerning time and money consumed). For some aspects, the differences between buffalo and dairy cattle are also highlighted.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of two different diets on fertility rate in 64 Mediterranean buffalo cows. The animals were divided in two groups: Group S (n=32) received a total mixed ration based on haysilage of Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum), hay and concentrates, whereas group H (n=32) was fed only hay and concentrates. Both diets consisted of 50-55 % forages and 45-50 % concentrates and contained 0.91 MFU/kg dry matter (DM) and 16% crude protein/DM. From February until September the cows were located together with bulls and pregnancy diagnosis was performed monthly. Furthermore, blood and milk samples were monthly collected on 20 animals in each group. Statistical analysis was performed by χ2 and t Student tests. A higher fertility rate was recorded in group H vs. group S (100 vs. 78.1%, respectively; P

From November 2005 to October 2006, sixteen buffalo heifers were used to evaluate the effect of season on grazing behaviour. They grazed a fenced Mediterranean maquis of ~40ha. Approximately 10% of this area was covered by woodland and shrub vegetation and the rest of the area by grassy habitat. From December to March, animals were supplemented with dehydrated beet-pulps and meadow hay administered in the barn. Behavioural data were collected from March to October. During a 6-h period the behaviour of a focal animal, chosen at random, was continuously monitored. All observations were conducted during daylight (between 05.30 and 15.00). During the behavioural observations, the ingestion of woody or shrub vegetation was rarely observed. The proportion of time spent grazing was not affected by season (0.600, 0.409, and 0.434, for spring, summer and autumn, respectively). Animals lay more in summer and autumn than in spring (P

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the sustainability and welfare of extensively farmed Podolian cattle. A trained interviewer visited 50 farms and filled in a checklist which included four cards corresponding to the following animal categories: calves, replacements, feeders and adults. The analysis of the farming system showed that animals were able to express their main behavioural patterns. In addition, recorded animal-related variables indicated that Podolian cattle could benefit from high standards of welfare. Sustainability of the Podolian farming system in terms of human edible returns was evaluated for two production systems producing 10-month-old calves (10 month) and 18-month-old young bulls (18 month), respectively. Edible returns for humans were low when all animal intakes were considered for both production systems. However, if returns were computed using not only the amount of food used by the animals but also consumable by humans, yields were much higher for 18-month systems [103% crude protein (CP) and 37.1% gross energy (GE)] and so high that they could not be computed for 10-month systems. These results indicate either a low degree of competition (18-month system) or no competition (10-month system) between humans and Podolian cattle. Perceptions of sustainability and welfare of Podolian cattle may promote a favourable positioning of products in premium-price markets and help preserving this breed and the related traditional farming system.

Twenty weaned female buffalo calves were used to evaluate the effect of space allowance in relation to their body surface area on a range of behavioural and physiological parameters. Body surface area in m2 was calculated as 0.12 body weight0.60. Ten calves received 50% of body surface as space allocation (Group 50), 10 others received 90% of body surface area (Group 90). Animals in Group 50 lay with a lower number of outstretched legs than calves in Group 90. Buffaloes from Group 50 were observed standing more frequently than animals from Group 90 ( P < 0.001). The proportions of idling ( P < 0.01) and lying idle observations ( P < 0.001) were higher for Group 90 than for Group 50. Group 90 performed a higher number of non-agonistic interactions than Group 50 ( P < 0.01), whereas the opposite was observed for the number of agonistic interactions ( P < 0.01). When exposed to open field testing, Group 50 animals displayed an increased duration of movement, number of galloping events and more vocalisation. Neither immune responses to phytohemagglutinin and ovalbumin nor the cortisol response to exogenous ACTH were affected by treatment. It was concluded that 50% of body surface area may be an inadequate space allowance for weaned calves.

The spontaneous level of sister chromatid exchanges (SCEs) in the sheep, estimated by exposing peripheral blood lymphocytes in 0.1 microgram/ml of 5'-bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU), was 4.08 +/- 2.47 SCE/cell, 2.04 SCE/cell cycle, 0.038 SCE/chromosome. The dose-response relationships, observed by exposing the cells to 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.5, and 5.0 micrograms/ml of BrdU, rose rapidly from 0.1 to 0.25 microgram/ml, and less rapidly at higher concentrations, thus reaching a saturation level. The analysis of variance, performed on the square root transformed data at 0.1 and 5 micrograms/ml of BrdU, indicated significant differences (P < 0.001) among the four donors tested. The distribution of the SCE/cell frequencies in the cell population of the four donors followed the Poisson 'mixture' probability function, thus confirming previous findings. The spontaneous rate of SCE/cell of sheep is compared with those previously reported for cattle, goat and river buffalo. The theoretical and practical implications of the spontaneous sister chromatid exchanges are discussed in relation to their possible use in animal production for (a) better genetic evaluation of the breeding animals under selection, (b) more precise monitoring of the genotoxic effects of environmental pollutants.