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While evaluations play a critical role in accounting for and learning from context, it is unclear how evaluations can take account of climate change. Our objective was to explore how climate change and its interaction with other contextual factors influenced One Health food safety programs. To do so, we integrated questions about climate change into a qualitative evaluation study of an ongoing, multi-sectoral program aiming to improve pork safety in Vietnam called SafePORK. We conducted remote interviews with program researchers (n = 7) and program participants (n = 23). Based on our analysis, researchers believed climate change had potential impacts on the program but noted evidence was lacking, while program participants (slaughterhouse workers and retailers) shared how they were experiencing and adapting to the impacts of climate change. Climate change also interacted with other contextual factors to introduce additional complexities. Our study underscored the importance of assessing climate factors in evaluation and building adaptive capacity in programming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a public health problem worldwide. Bangladesh, like its neighboring countries, faces many public health challenges, including access to safe food, inadequate food surveillance, as well as increasing AMR. This study investigated bacterial contamination and the AMR profile of pathogens in marketed food in Bangladesh and explored barriers to reducing AMR in the country. We collected 366 tomatoes, 359 chicken and 249 fish samples from 732 vendors in traditional markets in urban, peri-urban and rural areas in Bangladesh, as well as from 121 modern retails in Dhaka capital to analyse Vibrio cholerae and Escherichia coli in fish, Salmonella in chicken, and Salmonella and E. coli in tomatoes. Antibiotic susceptibility against 11 antibiotics was tested using a disc diffusion test and interpreted by an automated zone inhibition reader. In addition, a qualitative study using key informant interviews was conducted to explore antimicrobial use and AMR reduction potential in Bangladesh. We found E. coli in 14.21% of tomatoes and 26.91% of fish samples, while 7.38% of tomatoes and 17.27% of chicken were positive for Salmonella, and 44.98% of fish were positive for Vibrio cholerae. In total 231/319 (72.4%) of all pathogens isolated were multidrug-resistant (MDR) (resistant to three or more antibiotic groups). Qualitative interviews revealed an inadequate surveillance system for antibiotic use and AMR in Bangladesh, especially in the agriculture sector. To be able to fully understand the human health risks from bacterial hazards in the food and the AMR situation in Bangladesh, a nationwide study with a one health approach should be conducted, within all sectors, including AMR testing as well as assessment of the antimicrobial use and its drivers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-typhoidal Salmonellae are common foodborne pathogens that can cause gastroenteritis and other illnesses in people. This is the first study to assess the transfer of Salmonella enterica from raw chicken carcasses to ready-to-eat chicken salad in Cambodia. Twelve focus group discussions in four Cambodian provinces collected information on typical household ways of preparing salad. The results informed four laboratory experiments that mimicked household practices, using chicken carcasses inoculated with Salmonella. We developed four scenarios encompassing the range of practices, varying by order of washing (chicken or vegetables first) and change of chopping utensils (same utensils or different). Even though raw carcasses were washed twice, Salmonella was isolated from 32 out of 36 chicken samples (88.9%, 95% CI: 73.0–96.4) and two out of 18 vegetable samples (11.1%, 95% CI: 1.9–36.1). Salmonella was detected on cutting boards (66.7%), knives (50.0%) and hands (22.2%) after one wash; cross-contamination was significantly higher on cutting boards than on knives or hands (p-value < 0.05). The ready-to-eat chicken salad was contaminated in scenario 1 (wash vegetables first, use same utensils), 2 (wash vegetables first, use different utensils) and 3 (wash chicken first, use same utensils) but not 4 (wash chicken first, use different utensils) (77.8%, 11.1%, 22.2% and 0%, respectively). There was significantly higher Salmonella cross-contamination in scenario 1 (wash vegetables first, use same utensils) than in the other three scenarios. These results show how different hygiene practices influence the risk of pathogens contaminating chicken salad. This information could decrease the risk of foodborne disease in Cambodia and provides inputs to a quantitative risk assessment model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Contact with livestock wastewater on farms and in communities can pose a risk to human and animal health. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted in 180 households and 24 pig farms (96 wastewater samples) to explore information about pig production, livestock waste management, antibiotic use, and to analyze antibiotic residues and microbial contamination, respectively. Results: Of the 120 households raising pigs, biogas systems were the most commonly used to treat animal waste (70%), followed by compositing (19%), and the remaining respondents discharged waste directly into drains or ponds (11%). The majority of respondents (78%) used antibiotics to treat and prevent disease in pigs, but 32% of them did not know of any disadvantages of antibiotic abuse. ELISA assays were performed on half of the wastewater samples (n = 48), demonstrating that residues of flouroquinolones and sulfonamides were present in 6.3% (3/48) and 22.9% (11/48) of tested samples, respectively. The average residual level of sulfamethazine was 27.8 ug/l. Further, E. coli concentrations exceeding regulatory levels in Vietnam were found in nearly all samples. Salmonella spp. was also found in 57.3% of samples, though prevalence rates varied across the different sites. Finally, G. lamblia was found in 8.4% of samples, and C. parvum was found in 5.2% of samples. Conclusions: This study suggests that livestock wastewater carried potential harmful pathogens and antibiotic residues that could come into contact with humans in the community. Thus, appropriate operation and application of livestock wastewater treatment (such as biogas or composting) and management should be a continued focused. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of antibiotics in livestock production is considered a major driver of antibiotic resistance on a global scale. In Vietnam, small- and medium-scale livestock producers dominate the domestic market and regulatory pushes have done little to decrease antibiotic use. In order to inform future policy directions, this study aims to explore knowledge, attitudes, and practices amongst livestock producers to identify their perspectives on antibiotic use and resistance. A total of 392 small- and medium-scale producers specialized in pig, poultry and aquaculture production participated in the study. The results showed that the primary reason for antibiotic use reported by producers was for the treatment of infections (69%). However, prophylactic use was also evident, with farmers reporting other reasons for antibiotic use such as “animals display abnormal symptoms or behaviour” (55%), the “weather is about to change” (25%), or “animals on neighboring farms fall ill” (27%). Only one-fifth of producers demonstrated favorable attitudes towards antibiotic use and preventing antibiotic resistance. Moreover, administering antibiotics remained the preferred countermeasure directly applied by farmers at the first indication of disease (17%), compared to enacting hygiene (10%) or quarantine (5%) measures. The results showed divergent trends amongst producers, with pig producers demonstrating higher levels of knowledge, more favorable attitudes, and higher self-reported utilization of good practice. Better knowledge, attitudes, and practices were also associated with producers who engaged in efforts to explore information on antibiotic use and resistance, which improved incrementally with the number of sources consulted and hours invested. However, there were some areas where increased knowledge or more favorable attitude scores did not translate into better practices. For instance, producers with higher levels of formal education performed significantly better than those with lower education in terms of knowledge and attitude, though both groups reported similar practices. The findings of this study may support future interventions to prevent both antibiotic misuse and the development of antimicrobial resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Salmonella spp. and Staphylococcus aureus are two of the most common foodborne bacteria in animal-source foods (ASF) that cause illness worldwide. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of Salmonella spp. and S. aureus in chicken meat and pork in markets in Cambodia. Sampling was done in 52 traditional markets and 6 supermarkets in 25 provinces of Cambodia between October 2018 and August 2019. In total, 532 samples were obtained: chicken meat and pork (n = 408, 204 of each), chicken and pork cutting board swabs (n = 124, 62 of each). All samples were analyzed for the presence of Salmonella spp. and S. aureus; colony-forming units per gram (CFU/g) of coagulase-positive Staphylococci (CPS) were counted, and a subset of samples was also analyzed for the most probable number (MPN, n = 136) of Salmonella. The overall prevalence of Salmonella spp. and S. aureus were 42.1% (224/532) and 29.1% (155/532), respectively, with 14.7% (78/532) of samples containing both bacteria. The prevalence of Salmonella spp. in chicken meat was 42.6%, on chicken cutting board it was 41.9%, on pork it was 45.1%, and the pork cutting board 30.6%. Chicken meat had a significantly (p-value < 0.05) higher prevalence of S. aureus, 38.2%, compared to the chicken cutting board, 17.7%, pork 28.9%, and pork cutting board 11.3%. Mean MPN-Salmonella was 10.6 MPN/g in chicken and 11.1 MPN/g in pork samples. Average Log CFU/g of CPS in chicken and pork samples were 2.6 and 2.5, respectively. The results indicate that chicken meat and pork in Cambodia were highly contaminated with Salmonella spp. and S. aureus, posing risks to consumers' health. Urgent interventions are necessary to improve hygiene for safer meat in Cambodian markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pork and pork products are important staple food in the diet of Vietnamese consumers. The safety of pork, including biological contamination, is a concern to several public authorities and value chain actors. This cross-sectional study aimed to identify Salmonella and total bacterial count (TBC) contamination of cut pork sold in different outlets, and determine the potential factors leading to contamination. A total of 671 pork samples were collected from different retail channels in three provinces in Northern Vietnam. Hygiene conditions and practices at pork vending premises were also observed and recorded. Data analysis used descriptive statistics and regression analysis. Overall, Salmonella prevalence in retailed pork was 58.1%. Salmonella contamination in pork from traditional retail, modern retail and food services were 60.5%, 50.9% and 80.5%, respectively. Eighty percent and 68% of fresh pork in canteen and street food was contaminated with Salmonella. Only a small proportion of a subset of the pork samples (6.2%) tested met the Vietnamese standard requirement for TBC contamination. Average concentration of TBC in fresh pork in traditional retail, modern retail and food services were 6.51 (SD: 0.64), 6.38 (0.65), and 6.96 (0.85) LogCFU/g, respectively. Transport time, use of the same tools for pork and other types of meat, storage temperature, and environment hygiene are important factors that might affect microbial contamination. The findings underline the high level of microbial contamination, which requires practical interventions to improve food safety hygiene practices and behavior of pork retailers. • Overall, 58.1% of retailed pork in Vietnam was contaminated with Salmonella. • 6.2% pork samples met the Vietnamese standard requirement for TBC contamination. • Transport time, pork arrangement, storage condition and environment hygiene could affect microbial contamination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) is a major cause of gastroenteritis worldwide, often associated with meat consumption and meat processing. Research on NTS infection and circulating serovars in meat value chains in Uganda is limited. We aimed to establish NTS prevalence, antimicrobial resistance, and risk factors among slaughterhouse workers, and to identify potentially zoonotic serovars in the pork value chain., Material and Methods: We conducted a nationwide cross-sectional survey, collecting 364 stool samples from livestock slaughterhouse workers and 1,535 samples from the pork value chain: mesenteric lymph nodes, fecal samples, swabs of carcass splitting floor, cleaning water, meat handlers hand swabs, carcass swabs, raw pork, cooked pork, and mixed raw vegetables. Samples were cultured for isolation of NTS, and subsequently serotyped according to White-Kauffmann-Le Minor scheme. Antimicrobial resistance profiles were determined using tube microdilution and Sensititre ® EUVSEC3 ® plates. Semi- structured questionnaires with 35 questions were used to collect data on demographics, work related risk factors and activities outside the slaughterhouse., Results and Discussion: Overall NTS prevalence was 19.2% (365/1899). Proportions at slaughter were; 46.7% in floor swabs, 30.5% in carcass swabs, 20.5% in pig faeces,19.2% in mesenteric lymph nodes,18.4% in hand swabs, 9.5% in water and 5.2% in slaughterhouse workers. At retail, proportions were 33.8% in pork chopping surface, 33.1% in raw pork, 18.9% in hand swabs, 4.0% in cooked pork and 0.7% in vegetables. Sixty-one serovars were identified, with significant overlap between humans and the pork value chain. Overall, zoonotic S . Zanzibar, monophasic serovars of S . subspecies salamae (II) and subspecies enterica (I), S . Typhimurium and S . Newport, were the most prevalent. S . Typhimurium was predominant in humans and exhibited multi-drug resistance. NTS infection was significantly associated with eating, drinking, or smoking while working (OR = 1.95, 95% CI: 0.67-2.90%, p = 0.004). The detected NTS serovars in slaughterhouse workers could be a potential indicator of circulating serovars in the general population. The persistent presence of NTS along the pork value chain highlights occurrence of cross-contamination and the potential for transmission to consumers and slaughterhouse workers. This emphasizes the need to reduce Salmonella prevalence on pig farms and improve hygiene and pork handling practices at slaughter and retail points., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The author(s) declared that they were an editorial board member of Frontiers, at the time of submission. This had no impact on the peer review process and the final decision., (Copyright © 2024 Kivali, Roesel, Dohoo, Alinaitwe, Bugeza, Hoona, Mugizi, Kankya, Dang-Xuan, Szabo, Rösler, Friese and Cook.)

Livestock is a strategic part of the small-farm economy in Southeast Asia's society, providing food income, clothing, fertilizer, and draught power. However, incidences or outbreaks of transboundary animal diseases (TADs) are due to converging factors such as the natural hazards' aftermath, climate change, deforestation, urban growth, changing production conditions, and market chains. Therefore, this affects productivity and impacts farmers' livelihoods with small holdings. The literature review was carried out to understand the current situation of TADs in Southeast Asia, identifying knowledge gaps to provide actions for disease control and prevention in the region. We have attempted to summarise the scientific literature in English on the prevalence data of TADs in Southeast Asia between 2011 and March 2022. Relatively few studies evaluated the distribution of TAD, where most of the studies focused on diseases that are important for international trade, such as avian influenza (AI), African swine fever (ASF), classical swine fever (CSF), foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) and Newcastle disease (ND). Traditional production systems have received little attention in such studies as they belonged to mainly smallholders. The outbreaks of ASF and lumpy skin disease (LSD) in 2019 resulted in increased research activity between 2019-2022, while the other TADs were ignored in this period. For new emerging TADs diseases such as ASF and LSD, there is only information about the first detection without prevalence information. Therefore, further epidemiological investigations are necessary to reduce the gaps in disease surveillance reporting systems and support the prevention and reduction of further outbreaks.

As COVID-19 has shown, pandemics and outbreaks of emerging infections such as Zika, Nipah, monkeypox and antimicrobial-resistant pathogens, especially emerging zoonotic diseases, continue to occur and may even be increasing in Southeast Asia. In addition, these infections often result from environmental changes and human behaviour. Overall, public health surveillance to identify gaps in the literature and early warning signs are essential in this region. A systematic review investigated the prevalence of emerging zoonotic diseases over 11 years from 2011 to 2022 in Southeast Asia to understand the status of emerging zoonotic diseases, as well as to provide necessary actions for disease control and prevention in the region. During the 2011-2022 period, studies on pigs, poultry, ruminants, companion animals and wildlife in Southeast Asia were reviewed thoroughly to assess the quality of reporting items for inclusion in the systematic review. The review was performed on 26 studies of pigs, 6 studies of poultry, 21 studies of ruminants, 28 studies of companion animals and 25 studies of wildlife in Southeast Asia, which provide a snapshot of the prevalence of the emerging zoonotic disease across the country. The findings from the review showed that emerging zoonotic diseases were prevalent across the region and identified a few zoonotic diseases associated with poultry, mainly stemming from Cambodia and Vietnam, as high priority in Southeast Asia. Clinical relevance : Appropriate prevention and control measures should be taken to mitigate the emerging zoonotic diseases in Southeast Asia.

Gender influences participation in food value chains (VCs) with implications for VC upgrading. This study investigated roles as well as differences in production activities, awareness, training, and attitudes between men and women in Vietnam's smallholder pig VCs. Data were gathered from a survey of 1,014 actors in different nodes along the chain, and the results showed that both men and women participated in all nodes of the VCs. Women were mainly in charge of routine husbandry activities (e.g., preparing feed, feeding animals, and cleaning pig pens) and participated in input supply (34.7%), pig production (60.2%), pork processing (63.6%), retailing (93.1%), and home preparation and cooking (100%). Men were more often responsible for tasks requiring strength, knowledge, and skills (e.g., disease management) and had greater involvement in larger-scale farming (60-80%) and slaughtering activities (98.0%). Selling of pigs was handled by both genders, but mainly men (73-80%), especially in larger farms. Likely challenges for upgrading pig VCs include limited training for producers, low concern for occupational health risks in all nodes, and misperceptions about food safety. In general, this study found no clear evidence of perceived gender inequality in the smallholder pig VCs in lowland Vietnam. Gendered upgrading in pig VCs should focus on improving women's ability to access veterinary services and animal disease management and on educating relevant VC actors about occupational health risks., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Nguyen-Thi-Duong, Pham-Van, Duong-Nam, Nguyen-Thi-Thu, Ninh-Xuan, Dang-Xuan, Unger, Nguyen-Viet and Grace.)

The 2019 African swine fever (ASF) outbreaks in Vietnam imposed considerable impacts on the pig sector in Vietnam, resulting in the death or culling of nearly six million pigs, or more than 20% of the country's pig population. In order to assess the magnitude of the outbreak at sector level (both on farm and at value chain level), on livelihoods, and on the broader national economy, a comprehensive impact assessment was conducted using a mixed methods approach that integrated a value chain assessment with the use of quantitative modeling tools at sector and national levels. The results showed that the outbreak caused severe direct and indirect economic losses among farmers, particularly medium- and large-farmers whose livelihoods are largely derived from pig production. The outbreaks also affected other value chain actors due to a halving in the volume of pigs traded. At sector level, the outbreaks posed adverse impacts on the domestic supply and demand for pork, especially in the traditional sector. Meanwhile, the modern sector with higher levels of biosecurity and high technology growth was less likely to be affected and even benefited from the outbreak, which was evidenced by increased supply and income throughout the simulation period in this sector. At national level, different model simulation scenarios showed a sharp reduction in total gross domestic product (GDP) and a substantial loss of jobs. Improvements in the system of ASF compensation scheme are needed, both in terms of its administration, but also in its targeting, with greater emphasis needed on developing improved risk-sharing and funding mechanisms across national and local levels., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Nguyen-Thi, Pham-Thi-Ngoc, Nguyen-Ngoc, Dang-Xuan, Lee, Nguyen-Viet, Padungtod, Nguyen-Thu, Nguyen-Thi, Tran-Cong and Rich.)

Nontyphoidal Salmonella (NTS) is the most reported cause of bacterial foodborne zoonoses in Vietnam, and contaminated pork is one of the main sources of human infection. In recent years, the prevalence of NTS carrying multiple antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) have been increased. The genomic characterization along the pig value chain and the identification of ARGs and plasmids have the potential to improve food safety by understanding the dissemination of ARGs from the farm to the table. We report an analysis of 13 S . Derby and 10 S . Rissen isolates, collected in 2013 at different stages in Vietnamese slaughterhouses and markets. VITEK 2 Compact System was used to characterize the phenotypical antimicrobial resistance of the isolates. In addition, whole-genome sequencing (WGS) was used to detect ARGs and plasmids conferring multidrug resistance. Whole genome single nucleotide polymorphism typing was used to determine the genetic diversity of the strains and the spread of ARGs along the pig value chain. Altogether, 86.9% (20/23) of the samples were resistant to at least one antibiotic. Resistance to ampicillin was most frequently detected (73.9%), followed by piperacillin and moxifloxacin (both 69.6%). At least one ARG was found in all strains, and 69.6% (16/23) were multidrug-resistant (MDR). The observed phenotype and genotype of antimicrobial resistance were not always concordant. Plasmid replicons were found in almost all strains [95.6% (22/23)], and the phylogenetic analysis detected nine clusters ( S . Derby, n = 5; S . Rissen, n = 4). ARGs and plasmid content were almost identical within clusters. We found six MDR IncHI1s with identical plasmid sequence type in strains of different genetic clusters at the slaughterhouse and the market. In conclusion, high rates of multidrug resistance were observed in Salmonella strains from Vietnam in 2013. Genomic analysis revealed many resistance genes and plasmids, which have the potential to spread along the pig value chain from the slaughterhouse to the market. This study pointed out that bioinformatics analyses of WGS data are essential to detect, trace back, and control the MDR strains along the pig value chain. Further studies are necessary to assess the more recent MDR Salmonella strains spreading in Vietnam., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 González-Santamarina, García-Soto, Dang-Xuan, Abdel-Glil, Meemken, Fries and Tomaso.)

In Vietnam, pigs and poultry are predominantly produced by small-scale farmers, creating challenges for zoonotic disease management. The objective of this study was to characterize practices related to livestock and manure management and to measure association with 3 self-reported health symptoms (coughing, fever, and diarrhea/nausea/vomiting) in a region currently undergoing health transitions. We analyzed cross-sectional survey data collected from a subset (N = 5520) of the Chi Linh Health and Demographic Surveillance System cohort in Chi Linh district, Vietnam. Bivariate analyses indicated that female gender was a significant risk factor for all 3 health symptoms, whereas age (≥60 years), suburban living, low education level, and household wealth were risk factors for 2 symptoms. Overall, we found no indication that biogas production or exposure to livestock and manure adversely affected human health. Efforts to control zoonotic disease transmission should prioritize utilization of veterinarians, enhanced farm biosecurity, and improvements to commune drinking water/wastewater infrastructure.

Food-borne diseases are attracting a lot of attention in Vietnam as a result of repeated episodes of adulterated and unsafe food. In this paper, we provide some perspectives on food safety in Vietnam from the point of view of an international research institution working on food safety with partners in the country. We argue that one of the key issues of food safety in Vietnam is that certain food value chain stakeholders lack ethics, which leads to the production and trading of unsafe foods in order to make profits irrespective of adverse health effects on consumers. In turn, the shortfall in ethical behaviours around food can be attributed to a lack of incentives or motivating factors.Although food safety causes panic in the population, it is unclear how much contaminated food contributes to the burden of food-borne diseases and food poisonings in Vietnam. However, globally, the biggest health problem associated with food are infections from consuming food contaminated with viruses, bacteria or parasites. A major food safety challenge is the inappropriate way of communicating food risks to the public. Another key constraint is the inherent difficulty in managing food in wet markets and from smallholder production. On the other hand, local foods, and local food production and processing are an important cultural asset as well as being essential to food safety, and these aspects can be put at risk if food safety concerns motivate consumers to purchase more imported foods.In this paper, we also discuss good experiences in food safety management from other countries and draw lessons learnt for Vietnam on how to better deal with the current food safety situation.

Pork safety is an important public health concern in Vietnam and is a shared responsibility among many actors along the pork value chain. We examined the knowledge, perceptions, and practices regarding food safety, disease, and health risk among selected pork value chain actors (slaughterhouse owners and workers, people living around slaughterhouses, pork sellers, consumers, and veterinary and public health staff) in three districts in Hung Yen Province, Vietnam. We randomly selected 52 pork value chain actors to be surveyed through questionnaires, observation checklists, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions. Most slaughterhouse workers acquired knowledge and experience of food safety through "learning by doing" rather than from training by a veterinary or public health professional. Both slaughterhouse worker and pork seller groups had some accurate perceptions about pig diseases and foodborne diseases; however, misperceptions of risk and, especially, of zoonoses were present. Furthermore, while workers and sellers often use cloths to dry the meat and clean equipment, they did not think this was a risk for meat contamination. Moreover, when sellers wear protective equipment, such as gloves, masks, or hats, consumers perceive that the sellers may have health issues they are trying to conceal and so consumers avoid buying from them. The perceived freshness of pork, along with trust in the seller and in the pork production process, were strong indicators of consumer preference. And yet, pork value chain actors tend to trust their own individual food safety practices more, rather than the practices of other actors along the chain. Veterinary and public health staff emphasized the gap between regulations and food safety practices. Education and training on food safety risks and proper handling are priorities, along with integrated and intensive efforts to improve food safety among pork value chain actors.