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The analysis of geological processes threatening people and properties in a populated region should be based on a comprehensive knowledge of historical events and related characteristics. This type of information is essential for predisposing event scenarios, validating prediction models, and planning risk mitigation measures. Such activities may be more complex in some geological settings, where urban settlements are exposed to multi-hazard conditions. This is the case of the densely populated Campi Flegrei volcanic area located in the Campania region, southern Italy. Here, volcanic and seismic hazards are associated with landslides, floods, and coastal erosion, which are playing a relevant role in the landscape modification. The CAmpi Flegrei LAndslide Geodatabase (CAFLAG), here presented, provides information related to 2302 landslides that occurred in the continental, coastal, and insular sectors of the study area during the 1828–2017 time interval. Data associated with the collected landslide events highlight the characteristics of both landslides and of the affected sites. Most of the cataloged mass movements consist of rock falls affecting rocky slopes formed by lithified volcanic rocks, such as tuff or ignimbrite. In addition, rainfall-induced earth and debris slides translating into debris avalanches or rapid flows are widespread along steep slopes mantled by weakly welded pyroclastic airfall deposits, similarly to other areas of the region. The highest density of landslides is concentrated along the coastline, where mass movements are contributing to the retreat of coastal cliffs, and along inland slopes exposed towards the western directions, where most of the storm systems come from. Temporal information shows peaks of landslides in the years 1986, 1997, and 2005. A total of 127 people lost their lives as a consequence of 53 cataloged landslides, with a frequency of deadly events observed however to have decreased since the early 1980s. This information will be useful to analyze mortality and risk conditions still affecting the population of the Campi Flegrei caldera, which should be fully addressed with advanced knowledge and accurate scenarios. The full database is freely available online at https://doi.org/10.4121/14440757.v2 (Esposito and Matano, 2021).

High coastal sectors constitute the most widespread coastal environment and, under the present accelerated sea-level rise scenario, are suffering huge impacts in terms of erosion. The aim of this paper is the proposal of a new methodological approach for the assessment of their susceptibility to erosive processes. The method is based on the combination of two matrices, i.e., a matrix considering the main physical elements (essentially morphological and geotechnical characteristics) that determine the proneness to erosion of a specific high coastal sector, and a forcing matrix, which describes the forcing agents affecting the considered sector. Firstly, several variables were selected to construct each one of the two matrices according to existing studies and, in a second step, they were interpolated to obtain the susceptibility matrix (CSIx). The approach was applied to Procida Island and Cilento promontory, both located in southern Italy. Results obtained were validated by comparing them with cliff retreat data obtained by means of aerial photographs and satellite images. The analysis shows that the greater part of the analyzed high coastal sectors belongs to the high-susceptibility class due to the combination of adverse morphological, geotechnical and forcing characteristics. Such sectors can be considered “hotspots” that require an increase in monitoring programs and, at places, urgent protective actions.

The analysis of geological processes threatening people and properties in a populated region should be based on a comprehensive knowledge of historical events and related characteristics. This type of information is essential for predisposing event scenarios, validating prediction models, and planning risk mitigation measures. Such activities may be more complex in some geological settings, where urban settlements are exposed to multi-hazard conditions. This is the case of the densely populated Campi Flegrei volcanic area located in the Campania region, southern Italy. Here, volcanic and seismic hazards are associated with landslides, floods, and coastal erosion, which are playing a relevant role in the landscape modelling. The CAmpi Flegrei LAndslide Geodatabase (CAFLAG), here presented, provides information related to 2302 landslides that occurred in the continental, coastal and insular sectors of this area, during the 1828–2017 time interval. Data associated to the collected landslide events permitted to identify the characteristics of both landslides and of the affected sites. Most of the mass movements consist of rock falls, affecting rocky slopes formed by lithified volcanic rocks, such as lava, tuff or ignimbrite. In addition, rainfall-induced earth and debris slides translating into debris flows or avalanches occur along steep slopes mantled by weakly welded pyroclastic airfall deposits, similarly to other areas of the region. The highest density of landslides results along the coastline where they are contributing to the retreat of coastal cliffs, and along inland slopes exposed towards the western directions. Temporal information shows an increase of the annual frequency of landslides since the ’80s, with peaks in the years 1986, 1997, 2005. Regarding the human impact, a total of 127 people lost their life as consequence of 53 fatal landslides occurred in the last century. On the other side, the frequency of deadly events is decreasing since the early 1990s. Despite this, landslides continue to represent a societal risk in the area, requiring therefore to be fully addressed with advanced knowledge and accurate scenarios, which need to be developed by taking into account also the effects of the ongoing climate change. The full database is freely available online at: https://doi.org/10.4121/14440757.v2 (Esposito and Matano, 2021).

This chapter illustrates the marine record of a spectrum of volcanic, hydrothermal, and sedimentary features that characterize the Latest Pleistocene–Holocene evolution of the Naples Bay offshore Campi Flegrei and Somma–Vesuvius. The work is based on review of previous literature integrated with interpretation of new high-resolution marine Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) derived from swath bathymetry surveys and high-resolution reflection seismic profiles calibrated with marine gravity core data. Seismic profiles from Pozzuoli Bay provide detailed images of the ring fault system and resurgent dome associated with the evolution of the Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (NYT) collapse caldera and document a series of uplift episodes associated with volcanic unrest as documented on land throughout the Holocene, with a notable subsidence phase occurring between ∼ 2.5 ka BP and 1538 CE (Monte Nuovo eruption). Offshore seismic images also revealed the occurrence of ascending hydrothermal fluids and volcanic/subvolcanic intrusions along the ring fault zone of the NYT caldera. Seismic data acquired along the SW submerged slope of Somma–Vesuvius display evidence of gravitational instability, associated with slump folding and faulting, of sand waves originated by pyroclastic flows that entered the seawater after destroying the Roman city of Herculaneum during the 79 CE eruption of Vesuvius. Between the Somma–Vesuvius and Pozzuoli Bay, seismic profiles calibrated with gravity core data revealed the occurrence of a hummocky seafloor region, known as Banco della Montagna (i.e., the Montagna bank). This volcanic bank was shaped by the dragging and rising up of volcaniclastic diapirs (mostly unconsolidated pumice) because of pore fluid overpressure at depth and associated active fluid venting at the seafloor.

Landslides and surface erosion are major processes controlling the progressive recession of many rocky cliffs along the Italian coastline. Nevertheless, many coastal settlements were built along cliffed sectors prone to rapid collapses. This represents a serious risk for tourists and living people, as well as for buildings, roads and railway networks. The densely urbanized coastline of the Campi Flegrei active volcanic district is one of the rocky coastal areas of South Italy mostly exposed to the recession. Here, coastal cliffs are made by volcaniclastic deposits and include remnants of ancient volcanic edifices formed in the last 15 ka. Due to petrographic, geotechnical and geostructural properties of volcaniclastic deposits, these cliffs have been affected by rapid recession since their origin. This research focuses on a cliff of the Campi Flegrei coastaline (Torrefumo, Monte di Procida) which, although currently protected from the sea waves by a seawall, is still retreating. We assessed the ongoing recession using a change detection analysis, based on accurate topographic data acquired with two terrestrial laser scanning surveys executed in 2013 and 2016. The quantitative comparison of 3D point clouds datasets allowed detecting 191 cliff failures. We verified that the frequency-magnitude distribution of the detached blocks followed an inverse power law, and most of the involved volumes were between 0.01 and 1 m(3). Retreat rates of different cliff sectors varied from 0.001 to 0.025 m/year. Our analysis also allowed us to recognize slope failure mechanisms and distinguish rock falls from grain-by-grain surficial erosion.

The high levels of geo-hydrological, seismic, and volcanic hazards in the Campania region prompted full data collection from C-band satellites ERS-1/2, ENVISAT, and RADARSAT within regional (TELLUS) and national (PST-A) projects. The quantitative analysis, interpretation, and classification of natural and human-induced slow-rate ground deformations across a span of two decades (1992–2010) was performed at regional scale (Campania, Italy) by using interferometric archive datasets, based on the Persistent Scatterer Interferometry approach. As radar satellite sensors have a side-looking view, the post-processing of the interferometric datasets allows for the evaluation of two spatial components (vertical and E-W horizontal ones) of ground deformation, while the N-S horizontal component cannot be detected. The ground deformation components have been analyzed across 89.5% of the Campania territory within a variety of environmental, topographical, and geological conditions. The main part (57%) of the regional territory was characterized during 1992–2010 by stable areas, where SAR signals do not have recorded significant horizontal and vertical components of ground deformation with an average annual rate greater than +1 mm/yr or lower than −1 mm/yr. Within the deforming areas, the coastal plains are characterized by widespread and continuous strong subsidence signals due to sediment compaction locally enhanced by human activity, while the inner plain sectors show mainly scattered spots with locally high subsidence in correspondence of urban areas, sinkholes, and groundwater withdrawals. The volcanic sectors show interplaying horizontal and vertical trends due to volcano-tectonic processes, while in the hilly and mountain inner sectors the ground deformation is mainly controlled by large-scale tectonic activity and by local landslide activity. The groundwater-related deformation is the dominant cause of human-caused ground deformation. The results confirm the importance of using Persistent Scatterer Interferometry data for a comprehensive understanding of rates and patterns of recent ground deformation at regional scale also within tectonically active areas as in Campania region.

Abandoned quarries are frequently used as sites of illegal dumping of solid urban waste. These sites often occur nearby or within urban areas so that their detection may turn out to be quite difficult from the surface. This study focuses on the detection and geometrical characterization of a hidden landfill site located along the coastline of the Campi Flegrei, near Naples, Italy. Our approach is based on the analysis of historical topographic maps and aerial photographs, coupled with quantitative comparison of multitemporal digital elevation models obtained by digital photogrammetry and lidar techniques. The comparative analysis of topographic maps and aerial photos clearly shows modifications of the landscape associated with the urban development and quarrying activity, as well as the later filling of the quarry. The change detection analysis reveals that remarkable elevation changes occurred in the study area between 1956 and 2008. The average thickness of the landfill deposits is ca. 8 m, whereas the average volume is ca. 100,000 m3. The results of this work confirm the suitability of the used methodological approach that combines both qualitative and quantitative techniques for the detection of buried landfill sites. The geometric characterization of a landfill represents a fitting starting point for the further planning of geophysical site surveys and direct investigations aimed at the assessment of environmental hazards.

Climate change is affecting the frequency and severity of extreme meteorological and geo-hydrological events hitting the coastal zone of the Campi Flegrei volcanic district (southern Italy), which is prone to a wide spectrum of natural hazards, including volcanism, earthquakes, ground deformation, flash floods, landslides and coastal erosion. This study documents the trend of flash floods affecting the urban area of Pozzuoli, located along the coastline of the Campi Flegrei volcanic area during 1970-2014 time period. An archive research together with the collection of data published on news websites and social media allowed understanding of the triggering and evolution mechanisms of flash floods in the area, as well as the most recurrent damages. Rainfall data collected by the rain gauge located within the Pozzuoli watershed were also analyzed and rainfall properties estimated. Results of this study show an increased frequency of flash flood events occurred in the study area. The variation in flash flood frequency is likely not related to urbanization changes, as no increase of the urban area occurred after the year 2000. The observed increase in the flash flood events in recent years (2000-2014) can be reasonably ascribed to variations in the rainfall regime. Our research provide a contribution for the understanding of flash flood processes in the study area as well as relevant information for hazard and risk assessment.

Starting with the tragic case of the earthquake in L'Aquila this paper discusses a fundamental aspect of the correct evaluation of the danger (hazard) of an area and of a specific urban site, that is, the underestimation of the amplyfying effect of the sites in many developed Italian urgan areas situated in valleys or alluvial plains along with a scarce or incomplete knowledge of the geoseismic parameters of the local underground area.

Monitoring of geomorphic changes affecting sea cliffs poses a difficult challenge from a logistical point of view. Nevertheless, this activity is fundamental for the evaluation of cliff recession rates and the assessment of risk conditions affecting coastal settlements. Innovative geomatics techniques provide a valid contribution to detect cliff topographic modifications induced by erosion or landslide processes. This study presents a photogrammetric approach based on structure from motion (SfM) aimed at monitoring the geomorphic evolution of a coastal landslide that displaced about 40000m(3) of material in southern Italy. The landslide was monitored for more than two years, comparing multitemporal 3D point clouds derived from SfM. The results of change detection analysis allowed quantifying the volumes of rocks and unconsolidated sediments mobilised by erosion processes after the main failure, and developing a sediment budget. The study highlighted the high erodibility of collapsed material, as well as the suitability of the adopted techniques for 3D change detection analyses.

In this study we document a post-fire erosion response to a short-lived, intense rainstorm occurred on 6 September 2012 in the Sant'Angelo creek watershed, Sarno Mountains, Southern Italy. The rainstorm occurred one month after a wildfire that burned about 11 ha of the steep watershed (55 ha), almost entirely mantled by volcaniclastic deposits. The research was based on fieldwork and laboratory analysis addressed to the understanding of the geomorphic effects of the wildfire and their impact on erosional and depositional processes triggered by subsequent rainstorms. Field evidence indicates that a series of overland flows caused significant runoff and sediment yields along the hillslope and accumulation of hyperconcentrated flow deposits in a concrete channel occluded by a sealed culvert at the outlet of the watershed. The results of geomorphological and sedimentological analysis suggest that the occurrence of volcaniclastic covers mantling the slopes likely favored accelerated soil erosion, especially where vegetation and litter had been removed by the fire. Chemical analysis on sediment samples, revealed the occurrence of iron oxides that enhanced soil water repellency conditions over wide areas of the burned watershed compared to the unburned areas. Quantitative analysis of sediment budgets showed that the rainfall-induced erosion response at Sant'Angelo creek watershed resulted in a soil loss of 19.8–33.1 tons ha − 1 over burned areas. Post-fire erosion response following severe rainstorms needs to be considered in the spectrum of natural hazards associated with the geomorphological evolution of mountainous landscapes mantled by volcaniclastic deposits.

We present a long-range terrestrial laser scanner application for the geostructural mapping of Coroglio cliff, a tuff rock face exposed along the coastal zone of Campi Flegrei, Napoli. The procedure includes several phases (geomorphological analysis, structural field survey, laser scanner data acquisition and data processing, 3-D model development and analysis, geostructural classification of discontinuity orientation data and 2-D vertical cartographic production). Field data were processed with specific software dedicated to geostructural and geometric analysis. Spatial data were managed with a geographical information system and have been used for the construction of 2-D and 3-D geometric models of the rock cliff surface and geostructural interpretation. The main product of this study is a vertical geostructural map of the Coroglio cliff at 1:500 scale that illustrates the spatial distribution and orientation of the major families of structural discontinuities detected along the exposed surface of the cliff. The cartographic product includes base information useful to identify the main rock failure mechanisms along the cliff and represents a first step for the zonation of areas susceptible to block failures and the planning of monitoring activities.

The paper presents a method for estimating and mapping – at detailed scale (1:5000) – the thickness of pyroclastic cover beds resting on calcareous bedrock. This method, tested in the study area of Mount Albino (Campania region, southern Italy), makes use mainly of information gathered from in situ investigations, managed and processed in a geographical information system environment via a geostatistical interpolation technique (i.e. ordinary kriging) and finally integrated and amended by adopting a heuristic approach. Given its easy applicability and affordable costs, the proposed method can be used in similar geological contexts where knowledge of the spatial distribution of pyroclastic cover beds is a requirement for understanding and predicting slope instability processes.

Campi Flegrei is an active volcanic district located along the Eastern Tyrrhenian continental margin, Italy, and is worldwide known for dramatic ground deformation phenomena (bradyseism) recorded over the last centuries. The purpose of this article is to present the annual rates of ground deformation fields (average velocity, average acceleration, and combined annual velocity/acceleration) at Campi Flegrei, during almost two decades (years 1993-2010). The research work was conducted based on a temporal analysis and advanced mapping of Persistent Scatterer Pair (PSP) data, obtained from interferometric processing of radar satellite European Remote Sensing-1/2 and Environmental Satellite (ENVISAT) scenes of the study area. Patterns and trends of annual PSP velocity have provided a reconstruction of the spatial and temporal variability of ground deformation in terms of uplift and/or subsidence along the satellite line of sight (LOS). The analysis of annual PSP velocity and acceleration has revealed an intense dynamics of the Campi Flegrei caldera collapse-resurgence system, testified by the high PSP velocity and acceleration values, as well as the significant changes in the rates of ground deformation through time. The main results of this research indicate that the largest ground deformation is localized within and around the structural border of the Campi Flegrei caldera and suggest a systematic recurrence of opposite trends (uplift vs. subsidence) in the ground deformation of the inner caldera region with respect to the surrounding areas throughout the analysed time period.

This study presents the results of a Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS) application aimed at characterizing the structural pattern of Punta Epitaffio tuffaceous coastal cliff, Pozzuoli Bay, Eastern Tyrrhenian margin. The study site is located in the Campi Flegrei, an active volcanic caldera, characterized by dense urbanization, near the town of Naples, Italy. The 3D digital model of the Punta Epitaffio cliff derived from TLS data, provided a base for the classification of rock discontinuities by geostatistical analysis. In particular, the work flow of geostructural data processing included: 1) statistical analysis of spatial orientation of the facets of the 3D mesh derived by the TLS survey; 2) extraction of the best-fit attitudes (dip and dip direction) of discontinuity sets for each sub-planar patch of the rock face; 3) cluster analysis of best-fit structural discontinuities; 4) definition of all the discontinuity sets and geo-structural classification of 3D model facets; 5) kinematic analysis for the definition of possible failure mechanisms. Kinematic analysis took into account primarily structurally-controlled failure mechanisms (planar sliding, wedge sliding, flexural toppling, and direct toppling). The method illustrated in this research can be extensively applied to identify unstable areas along tuffaceous coastal cliffs and define shape and volume of rocks potentially involved by failures.

This study presents a Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) application to monitor the slope stability along tuffaceous cliffed coast of Pozzuoli Bay, at Coroglio test site, Naples, Italy. We tested TLS technique based on Time of Flight method in order to obtain a 3D model of the coastal cliff, along with a classification of the rock discontinuities on the basis of their spatial orientation. A high-resolution digital model of the study outcrop has been produced, with a cell dimension of 5 cm. The analysis of spatial orientation of planar-like surfaces derived from the digital 3D model shows an excellent correlation with the sets of fractures and faults actually measured in the outcrop by classic geo-structural analysis. The results obtained from the Coroglio test suggest that the use of TLS application is an effective method for the monitoring of instability and evolution of coastal cliffs in volcanic settings.

Nel presente contributo viene proposto un approccio geomatico per mappare e caratterizzare dal punto di vista geomorfologico i fenomeni franosi superficiali in situazioni di emergenza. Il metodo è stato applicato durante il rilevamento di una frana che il 27/10/2013 ha interessato la falesia costiera della località "Baia dei Porci", nel Comune di Monte di Procida, in provincia di Napoli. Durante il rilevamento, eseguito parzialmente da barca, sono state scattate 95 foto successivamente elaborate con il software Agisoft PhotoScanTM. Il prodotto ottenuto dall'elaborazione è stato un modello digitale 3D della frana (DEM), georeferenziato nel sistema UTM 33N-WGS84. Dall'elaborazione del DEM eseguita in ESRI ArcGisTM è stato possibile ottenere la carta topografica della frana in scala 1:500, la carta delle pendenze, l'area delle zone di distacco e di deposito ed il volume del materiale franato. Visti i risultati ottenuti si ritiene che l'approccio proposto sia idoneo per essere applicato in situazioni di emergenza provocate da frane superficiali, a supporto delle autorità di Protezione Civile.

A methodological approach for the susceptibility analysis and zoning, at medium scale, of hyperconcentrated flows is presented. The adopted procedure comprises the following steps: (1) collection of data useful to acquire detailed knowledge of the slope processes leading to flow-like mass movements in the site; (2) hyperconcentrated flow susceptibility analyses via heuristic and statistic procedures; (3) hyperconcentrated flow susceptibility zoning (1:25,000 scale) at a preliminary/intermediate level. The procedure is applied to the test site of Monte Albino, (southern Italy), which extends over an area of around 400 ha. The obtained results emphasize the potential of an approach which moves from preliminary to intermediate level of susceptibility zoning. The results also highlight the important role played by the combined use of different procedures, based on heuristic and statistical models, in defining a standardised criterion to be adopted in problems dealing with the analysis and zoning of susceptibility to hyperconcentrated flows. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013.

In this paper we recall a method for medium scale (level-2) zoning of seismic-induced landslide susceptibility and present its application to the Sannio-Irpinia area, Southern Italy. Previous small scale studies of the entire Campania Region identified this area as one of the most susceptible to earthquake-induced landslides in the region. The area's intense seismic and landslide activity and the characteristics of the deposits involved in landslides make this analysis an interesting case study for land planning, management and protection of an area characterized by high seismic and hydrogeological hazard. The result of the zoning shows good agreement between the distribution of the historical earthquake-triggered landslides and the areas defined by the method as the most susceptible ones. They also highlight the method's effectiveness in the presence of complex clayey deposits. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

In this paper, we present a GIS-based method for regional zoning of seismic-induced landslide susceptibility and show its application to the territory of the Campania region, Southern Italy. The method employs only three factors that we believe are most significant in the susceptibility assessment: the type of outcropping rock/soil, the slope angle, and the MCS intensity. Each of the three parameters is quantified in terms of relative weight expressed as indices, and the resulting Seismic Landslide Susceptibility index of an area is given by the average of the indices of the first two factors multiplied by the index of the third factor. The result of this susceptibility zonation applied to Campania shows a good agreement between the distribution of the historical earthquake-triggered landslides and the highly susceptible zones.

The paper deals with the assessment of rockfall risk to persons travelling in vehicles along the SS163 road, an important transportation corridor supporting a high vehicle traffic within the well-known tourist area of the Amalfi Coast (southern Italy). To this aim, the Rockfall Hazard Rating System (RHRS) and quantitative risk assessment (QRA) procedures, in this latter case for three rockfall risk scenarios, are applied. With reference to a large portion (33. 820 out of a total of 50. 365 km) of the SS163 road, the obtained QRA results highlight that, although the estimated individual risk to life satisfies the adopted tolerable risk criterion, the computed societal risk cannot be tolerated. Starting from this result, site-specific QRA analyses-carried out with reference to some road sections chosen on the basis of the RHRS results-allow the detection of the SS163 portions where the individual risk to life exceeds the tolerable risk threshold and, then, the recourse to mitigation measures could reveal necessary. In this regard, RHRS and QRA methods can be considered complementary tools in prioritizing the road sections where construction funds can be profitably spent in order to mitigate the rockfall risk with reference to both direct consequences (life loss) and indirect ones (traffic delay and diversions). © 2012 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

In this paper we present an application of a new grade-2 zoning method for seismic-induced landslide susceptibility (RAPOLLA et alii, 2010). Here two different seismic areas of the Campania Region, Sannio and Irpinia, have been considered. These zones are characterized by several seismic-induced landslides, some of them re-activated after the 1980 earthquake and located many tens of kilometers away from the earthquake epicenter.

Si descrive un’applicazione di tecniche di clustering su dati satellitari relativi ai serie storiche di deformazione del suolo. Tali dati sono stati ottenuti mediante elaborazione con tecnica PS-InSARTM su immagini dei satelliti ERS1-2 per il periodo 1992-2000. L’area analizzata è compresa tra le città di Avellino e Benevento in Campania, e si sono ottenute alcune importanti informazioni sui trend deformativi del suolo presenti nel periodo di misura e sulla loro distribuzione areale, che è stata interpretata in prospettiva geologica e sismotettonica.

An integrated study, comprising detailed mapping, stratigraphy, evaporite facies analysis, strontium content, and (87)Sr/(86)Sr ratio data, is presented for two Messinian evaporite-bearing units cropping out in Irpinia-Daunia Mountains (southern Apennines, Italy). These units record the tectonic and palaeogeographic evolution of the Messinian southern Apennine foreland basin system during the abrupt salinity crisis which occurred in the Mediterranean region. The Daunia unit comprises the Monte Castello evaporites, formed by euxinic diatomitic marls, evaporitic limestones, and shallow-water gypsum, having a (87)Sr/(86)Sr average value of 0.70898 +/- 0.00005, close to the Sr isotopic value of the coeval seawater. These marginal evaporites are capped by an erosional unconformity and continental elastic deposits. The Vallone del Toro unit is made up of thin-bedded marls, claystones, calcilutites, and diatomite layers with small gypsum crystals, laminated gypsum, and gypsarenite, testifying deposition in relatively deep-water settings. Gypsum has variable Sr isotopic data with an average value of 0.70899 +/- 0.00005 for the "Argilliti policrome del Torrente Calaggio'' formation and an average value of 0.70863 +/- 0.00014 for the "Argilliti di Mezzana di Forte" formation, reflecting major riverine freshwater input. The different patterns of lithofacies and Sr isotopic composition of gypsum discriminate two distinctive evaporite units, reflecting the tectonic and palaeogeographic controls within the Apennines mountain belt and the Mediterranean. Data for evaporites of the southern Apennines testify the presence of basins in the central and eastern Mediterranean Sea, which never desiccated during the entire salinity crisis and evolved to widespread Lago-Mare conditions in the latest Messinian.