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Many novel infectious diseases have been reported since 1940; most have been zoonoses originating from wildlife (1). Several novel zoonotic viruses, including Hendra virus, Australian bat lyssavirus, and Nipah virus, [...] more...

Abstract Background The clinical diagnosis of encephalitis is often difficult and identification of a causative organism is infrequent. The encephalitis syndrome may herald the emergence of novel pathogens with outbreak potential. Individual treatment and an effective public health response rely on identifying a specific pathogen. In Australia there have been no studies to try to improve the identification rate of encephalitis pathogens. This study aims to review the diagnostic assessment of adult suspected encephalitis cases. Methods A retrospective clinical audit was performed, of all adult encephalitis presentations between July 1998 and December 2007 to the three hospitals with adult neurological services in the Hunter New England area, northern New South Wales, Australia. Case notes were examined for evidence of relevant history taking, clinical features, physical examination, laboratory and neuroradiology investigations, and outcomes. Results A total of 74 cases were included in the case series. Amongst suspected encephalitis cases, presenting symptoms and signs included fever (77.0%), headache (62.1%), altered consciousness (63.5%), lethargy (32.4%), seizures (25.7%), focal neurological deficits (31.1%) and photophobia (17.6%). The most common diagnostic laboratory test performed was cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis (n = 67, 91%). Herpes virus polymerase chain reaction (n = 53, 71.6%) and cryptococcal antigen (n = 46, 62.2%) were the antigenic tests most regularly performed on CSF. Neuroradiological procedures employed were computerized tomographic brain scanning (n = 68, 91.9%) and magnetic resonance imaging of the brain (n = 35, 47.3%). Thirty-five patients (47.3%) had electroencephalograms. The treating clinicians suspected a specific causative organism in 14/74 cases (18.9%), of which nine (12.1%) were confirmed by laboratory testing. Conclusions The diagnostic assessment of patients with suspected encephalitis was not standardised. Appropriate assessment is necessary to exclude treatable agents and identify pathogens warranting public health interventions, such as those transmitted by mosquitoes and those that are vaccine preventable. An algorithm and guidelines for the diagnostic workup of encephalitis cases would assist in optimising laboratory testing so that clinical management can be best tailored to the pathogen, and appropriate public health measures implemented. more...

Abstract Background Lymphatic Filariasis (LF) is an important Neglected Tropical Disease, being a major cause of disability worldwide. The Global Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis aims to eliminate LF as a public health problem by the year 2020, primarily through repeated Mass Drug Administration (MDA). The Pacific region programme commenced in 1999. By June 2007, five of the eleven countries classified as endemic had completed five MDA campaigns and post-MDA prevalence surveys to assess their progress. We review available programme data and discuss their implications for other LF elimination programs in developing countries. Methods Reported MDA coverage and results from initial surveys and post-MDA surveys of LF using the immunochromatographic test (ICT) from these five Pacific Island countries (Tonga, Niue, Vanuatu, Samoa and Cook Islands) were analysed to provide an understanding of their quality and programme progress towards LF elimination. Denominator data reported by each country programme for 2001 was compared to official sources to assess the accuracy of MDA coverage data. Results Initial survey results from these five countries revealed an ICT prevalence of between 2.7 and 8.6 percent in individuals tested prior to commencement of the programme. Country MDA coverage results varied depending on the source of denominator data. Of the five countries in this case study, three countries (Tonga, Niue and Vanuatu) reached the target prevalence of Conclusion Accurate and representative baseline and post-campaign prevalence data is crucial for determining program effectiveness and the factors contributing to effectiveness. This is emphasised by the findings of this case study. While three of the five Pacific countries reported achieving the target prevalence of more...

Background: From late 2014 multiple atolls in Kiribati reported an unusual and sometimes fatal illness. We conducted an investigation to identify the etiology of the outbreak on the most severely affected atoll, Kuria, and identified thiamine deficiency disease as the cause. Thiamine deficiency disease has not been reported in the Pacific islands for >5 decades. We present the epidemiological, clinical, and laboratory findings of the investigation. Methodology/Principal findings: We initially conducted detailed interviews and examinations on previously identified cases to characterize the unknown illness and develop a case definition. Active and passive surveillance was then conducted to identify additional cases. A questionnaire to identify potential risk factors and blood samples to assay biochemical indices were collected from cases and asymptomatic controls. Thiamine hydrochloride treatment was implemented and the response to treatment was systematically monitored using a five-point visual analogue scale and by assessing resolution of previously abnormal neurological examination findings. Risk factors and biochemical results were assessed by univariate and multivariate analyses. 69 cases were identified on Kuria (7% attack rate) including 34 confirmed and 35 unconfirmed. Most were adults (median age 28 years [range 0–62]) and 83% were male. Seven adult males and two infants died (13% case fatality rate). Resolution of objective clinical signs (78%) or symptoms (94%) were identified within one week of starting treatment. Risk factors included having a friend with thiamine deficiency disease and drinking kava; drinking yeast alcohol reduced the risk of disease. Higher chromium (p<0·001) but not thiamine deficiency (p = 0·66) or other biochemical indices were associated with disease by univariate analyses. Chromium (p<0·001) and thiamine deficiency (p = 0·02) were associated with disease by multivariate analysis. Conclusions/Significance: An outbreak of thiamine deficiency disease (beriberi) in Kiribati signals the re-emergence of a classic nutritional disease in the Pacific islands after five decades. Although treatment is safe and effective, the underlying reason for the re-emergence remains unknown. Chromium was highly and positively correlated with disease in this study raising questions about the potential role of factors other than thiamine in the biochemistry and pathophysiology of clinical disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Problem: Emergencies resulting from disease outbreaks and extreme environmental events present significant challenges for health services. Context: Preparing to effectively manage emergencies is a core activity in public health units. Field exercises support consolidation of biopreparedness by testing plans, identifying weaknesses, providing training opportunities and developing surge capacity. Action: An extended field exercise to test response to a novel influenza strain was conducted in New South Wales, Australia in September 2008, eight months before the influenza A(H1N1) 2009 pandemic emerged. Lasting four days and involving over 300 participants, the exercise was set in the early response phase with the staggered presentation of 41 cases to 36 emergency departments in the health area. An additional 150 contacts were written into a complex scenario to test the public health response. Outcome: The subsequent pandemic emergence in mid-2009 offered a unique opportunity to assess the field exercise format for disaster preparedness. Most roles were adequately tested with recognized benefit during the actual pandemic response. However, the exercise did not adequately challenge the public health planning team that synthesizes surveillance data and forecasts risk, nor did it identify planning issues that became evident during the subsequent pandemic. Discussion: Field exercises offer the opportunity to rigorously test public health emergency preparedness but can be expensive and labour-intensive. Our exercise provided effective and timely preparation for the influenza A(H1N1) 2009 pandemic but showed that more emphasis needs to be placed on the role and training of the public health planning team. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Background: The clinical diagnosis of encephalitis is often difficult and identification of a causative organism is infrequent. The encephalitis syndrome may herald the emergence of novel pathogens with outbreak potential. Individual treatment and an effective public health response rely on identifying a specific pathogen. In Australia there have been no studies to try to improve the identification rate of encephalitis pathogens. This study aims to review the diagnostic assessment of adult suspected encephalitis cases. Methods: A retrospective clinical audit was performed, of all adult encephalitis presentations between July 1998 and December 2007 to the three hospitals with adult neurological services in the Hunter New England area, northern New South Wales, Australia. Case notes were examined for evidence of relevant history taking, clinical features, physical examination, laboratory and neuroradiology investigations, and outcomes. Results: A total of 74 cases were included in the case series. Amongst suspected encephalitis cases, presenting symptoms and signs included fever (77.0%), headache (62.1%), altered consciousness (63.5%), lethargy (32.4%), seizures (25.7%), focal neurological deficits (31.1%) and photophobia (17.6%). The most common diagnostic laboratory test performed was cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis (n = 67, 91%). Herpes virus polymerase chain reaction (n = 53, 71.6%) and cryptococcal antigen (n = 46, 62.2%) were the antigenic tests most regularly performed on CSF. Neuroradiological procedures employed were computerized tomographic brain scanning (n = 68, 91.9%) and magnetic resonance imaging of the brain (n = 35, 47.3%). Thirty-five patients (47.3%) had electroencephalograms. The treating clinicians suspected a specific causative organism in 14/74 cases (18.9%), of which nine (12.1%) were confirmed by laboratory testing. Conclusions: The diagnostic assessment of patients with suspected encephalitis was not standardised. Appropriate assessment is necessary to exclude treatable agents and identify pathogens warranting public health interventions, such as those transmitted by mosquitoes and those that are vaccine preventable. An algorithm and guidelines for the diagnostic workup of encephalitis cases would assist in optimising laboratory testing so that clinical management can be best tailored to the pathogen, and appropriate public health measures implemented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

An abstract of the article "The adequacy of encephalitis surveillance for emerging infectious diseases in Australia," by David N. Durrheim, Clare Huppatz, and Beverley Paterson is presented.

Hepatitis A is caused by the hepatitis A virus (HAV), with transmission occurring through the faecal-oral route. In May 2013, a case of hepatitis A infection was reported to a Western Australian regional public health unit, with infection acquired in Fiji. Following this, 2 further cases were linked to the index case by kava drinking and 1 further case was a household contact of a secondary case. This outbreak highlights that the preparation of kava drink and/or the use of a common drinking vessel could be a vehicle for the transmission of HAV., (copyright@health.gov.au) more...

Problem: Emergencies resulting from disease outbreaks and extreme environmental events present significant challenges for health services., Context: Preparing to effectively manage emergencies is a core activity in public health units. Field exercises support consolidation of biopreparedness by testing plans, identifying weaknesses, providing training opportunities and developing surge capacity., Action: An extended field exercise to test response to a novel influenza strain was conducted in New South Wales, Australia in September 2008, eight months before the influenza A(H1N1) 2009 pandemic emerged. Lasting four days and involving over 300 participants, the exercise was set in the early response phase with the staggered presentation of 41 cases to 36 emergency departments in the health area. An additional 150 contacts were written into a complex scenario to test the public health response., Outcome: The subsequent pandemic emergence in mid-2009 offered a unique opportunity to assess the field exercise format for disaster preparedness. Most roles were adequately tested with recognized benefit during the actual pandemic response. However, the exercise did not adequately challenge the public health planning team that synthesizes surveillance data and forecasts risk, nor did it identify planning issues that became evident during the subsequent pandemic., Discussion: Field exercises offer the opportunity to rigorously test public health emergency preparedness but can be expensive and labour-intensive. Our exercise provided effective and timely preparation for the influenza A(H1N1) 2009 pandemic but showed that more emphasis needs to be placed on the role and training of the public health planning team. more...

Norovirus is a common cause of gastroenteritis outbreaks associated with raw shellfish consumption. In Australia there have been several reports of norovirus outbreaks associated with oysters despite the application of regulatory measures recommended by Food Standards Australia New Zealand. This study describes an outbreak of norovirus gastroenteritis following the consumption of New South Wales oysters. In September 2007, OzFoodNet conducted a cohort study of a gastroenteritis outbreak amongst people that had dined at a Port Macquarie restaurant. Illness was strongly associated with oyster consumption, with all cases having eaten oysters from the same lease (RR undefined, p < 0.0001). Norovirus was detected in a faecal specimen. Although no pathogen was identified during the environmental investigation, the source oyster lease had been closed just prior to harvesting due to sewage contamination. Australian quality assurance programs do not routinely test oysters for viral contamination that pose a risk to human health. It is recommended that the feasibility of testing oysters for norovirus, particularly after known faecal contamination of oyster leases, be assessed. more...