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This introduction provides an overview of the major constructs that are the focus of this Special Issue. Individualism and collectivism have been the cornerstones of theoretical work on cultural values in psychological science, and conformity is an important component of theories related to motivational values. Individualism, collectivism and conformity values are reviewed in relation to parenting (warmth, knowledge solicitation, rules/limit-setting, parents' expectations regarding children's family obligations) and children's adjustment (internalising and externalising behaviours). Background on the Parenting Across Cultures project, a study of children, mothers and fathers, in nine countries (China, Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, the Philippines, Sweden, Thailand and the United States) is provided as a prelude to the country-specific papers from each of these countries that follow in the rest of the Special Issue before a final concluding paper that focuses on between-country versus within-country variation in cultural values, parenting and children's adjustment., (© 2024 International Union of Psychological Science.)

This study examined associations between maternal and paternal cultural values (individualism, collectivism and conformity) and parenting dimensions (warmth, psychological control, autonomy granting, rule setting, knowledge solicitation and family obligations) and children's adjustment (internalising and externalising behaviours) in 113 families with children (M age  = 10.8 years) recruited from Zarqa, Jordan. Bivariate correlations and multiple regression analyses were used to examine study question. Results revealed that mothers' individualism was positively correlated with more maternal warmth, more rules/limit-setting and fathers' and children's perceptions regarding children's greater family obligations. Fathers' individualism was not significantly correlated with any parenting or child adjustment variables. Mothers' and fathers' higher collectivism was correlated with more maternal and paternal warmth, respectively; however, mothers' and fathers' higher conformity values were not significantly correlated with any parenting or child adjustment variables. Mothers' collectivism was not associated with any parenting or child adjustment variables after taking into account the other cultural values, child gender and mothers' education; however, fathers' higher collectivism was associated with more paternal warmth, fathers' higher expectations for children's family obligations and less child internalising behaviour. The findings have implications for understanding how cultural values are related to parenting and children's adjustment in Jordan., (© 2024 International Union of Psychological Science.)

Mental disorders or altered psychological states are prevalent in all populations, regardless of race or ethnic origin, while at the same time, culture also shapes the conceptions of mental disorders. Religion is deeply rooted in the daily life of the Muslim-majority countries, while Arab countries are affected by an ongoing modernization. Thus, how does the traditional religious conception of mental disorders interact with Western psychological conceptions in contemporary Arab-Muslim society? This study explores the conceptions of mental disorders and their causes among Muslims in contemporary Jordan. By employing cognitive anthropological method (free listing), forty participants were asked to provide three lists of (a) typical names of mental disorders, (b) causes of mental disorders and (c) determining features of mental disorders. Collected qualitative data have been quantitatively analysed and interpreted in the context of relevant ethnographic and interview data. While Western terms of mental disorders are well known among young and educated Jordanians, the study demonstrates that Jordanians employ cultural and religious notions alongside. This co-existence of different conceptions confirms an importance of Islamic notion in the modern rendering of mental health. As a result, despite rapid modernization, mental health is still highly stigmatized., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.)

Temporalities of care shape the lives of families raising children with Down syndrome in Jordan. As they age, parents grapple with the future's uncertainties and often circle back to questions of marriage. Marriage is a key symbol of adulthood, shaping futures and actualities of care by distributing gendered and generational labor among kin. Over time, children with Down syndrome depart from the normative trajectories embedded in these kinship- and marriage-based systems of care, leaving them stuck. While parents worry about care futures, they and their grown children contend with constricting opportunities in the present.

Background: Fibromyalgia (FM) is a chronic disorder characterised by chronic widespread pain, fatigue and sleep disturbances with higher prevalence in females. Psychological factors contribute largely to FM. Although women war refugees represent a fragile population that is prone to psychological distress, FM was not studied in this population., Objective: The current study had three objectives: (1) to screen FM and insomnia prevalence and severity, (2) to study the correlation between FM severity and insomnia and (3) to study FM treatment trends and their concordance with the guidelines among female Syrian refugees residing in Jordan., Methods: A cross-sectional study design was performed. Data from 384 Syrian female were analysed from four medical centres in Jordan. The Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire (FIQ) was used to study FM prevalence. Structured questions were designed to explore FM pharmacotherapeutic trend, and the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) was used to screen insomnia., Results: The prevalence of severe FM was about (30%), with a significant correlation with insomnia. Acetaminophen was used for FM relief in 60% of the study sample., Conclusions: Fibromyalgia prevalence is high among female refugees and is associated with insomnia. The treatment is suboptimal. The early screening and raising awareness of FM diagnosis and treatments are highly recommended. Key Points Fibromyalgia is an overlooked disorder especially among female war refugees The prevalence of severe fibromyalgia was about (30%), with a significant correlation with insomnia Fibromyalgia among the Syrian female refugees is mistreated perhaps due to lack of the proper diagnosis.

This short piece is a reflection on some of the stark cultural, social, and official differences between Australian and Jordanian handling of the mental health crisis triggered by COVID-19 seen through the eyes of two researchers living in the 2 countries. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

This study tested culture-general and culture-specific aspects of adolescent developmental processes by focusing on opportunities and peer support for aggressive and delinquent behavior, which could help account for cultural similarities and differences in problem behavior during adolescence. Adolescents from 12 cultural groups in 9 countries (China, Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, the Philippines, Sweden, Thailand, and the United States) provided data at ages 12, 14, and 15. Variance in opportunities and peer support for aggression and delinquency, as well as aggressive and delinquent behavior, was greater within than between cultures. Across cultural groups, opportunities and peer support for aggression and delinquency increased from early to mid-adolescence. Consistently across diverse cultural groups, opportunities and peer support for aggression and delinquency predicted subsequent aggressive and delinquent behavior, even after controlling for prior aggressive and delinquent behavior. The findings illustrate ways that international collaborative research can contribute to developmental science by embedding the study of development within cultural contexts., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

We investigated whether bidirectional associations between parental warmth and behavioral control and child aggression and rule-breaking behavior emerged in 12 cultural groups. Study participants included 1,298 children (M = 8.29 years, standard deviation [SD] = 0.66, 51% girls) from Shanghai, China (n = 121); Medellín, Colombia (n = 108); Naples (n = 100) and Rome (n = 103), Italy; Zarqa, Jordan (n = 114); Kisumu, Kenya (n = 100); Manila, Philippines (n = 120); Trollhättan/Vänersborg, Sweden (n = 101); Chiang Mai, Thailand (n = 120); and Durham, NC, United States (n = 111 White, n = 103 Black, n = 97 Latino) followed over 5 years (i.e., ages 8-13). Warmth and control were measured using the Parental Acceptance-Rejection/Control Questionnaire, child aggression and rule-breaking were measured using the Achenbach System of Empirically-Based Assessment. Multiple-group structural equation modeling was conducted. Associations between parent warmth and subsequent rule-breaking behavior were found to be more common across ontogeny and demonstrate greater variability across different cultures than associations between warmth and subsequent aggressive behavior. In contrast, the evocative effects of child aggressive behavior on subsequent parent warmth and behavioral control were more common, especially before age 10, than those of rule-breaking behavior. Considering the type of externalizing behavior, developmental time point, and cultural context is essential to understanding how parenting and child behavior reciprocally affect one another., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Circassians are a Caucasian ethnic group who make up a significant minority in Jordan. Although other ethnic groups have been the subject of forensic genetic analysis, no published study has investigated the forensic genetic efficiency of short tandem repeats (STRs) in Circassians, neither in Jordan nor in any other country. The main objective of the current study is to determine the allelic frequencies and evaluate the forensic efficiency parameters of 21 highly polymorphic autosomal STR loci among the Circassian subpopulation in Jordan. The GlobalFiler loci were amplified using DNA extracted from the whole blood samples of 150 Jordanian Circassians. The SE33 locus was found to be the most informative and polymorphic STR marker while TPOX was the least informative. However, allele 8 of TPOX was the most common across all of the investigated 21 loci in Jordanian Circassians. The combined matching probability (CMP) and combined power of discrimination (CPD) were 5.02E-24 and 0.9999999, respectively., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

This study investigated the association between perceived material deprivation, children's behavior problems, and parents' disciplinary practices. The sample included 1,418 8- to 12-year-old children and their parents in China, Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, the Philippines, Sweden, Thailand, and the United States. Multilevel mixed- and fixed-effects regression models found that, even when income remained stable, perceived material deprivation was associated with children's externalizing behavior problems and parents' psychological aggression. Parents' disciplinary practices mediated a small share of the association between perceived material deprivation and children's behavior problems. There were no differences in these associations between mothers and fathers or between high- and low- and middle-income countries. These results suggest that material deprivation likely influences children's outcomes at any income level., (© 2018 Society for Research in Child Development.)

The knowledge of Syrian psychosocial activists in displaced communities is an invaluable resource for developing an ecological understanding of community needs and attitudes. This may elucidate the structural challenges of displacement to be addressed in psychosocial interventions. During Phase 1 of the study, we employed the community readiness model-a tool to assess community climate, needs, and resources-to determine community capacity-building needs. Eight Syrian key informants were interviewed in Amman, Jordan (December 2013 to January 2014). Community readiness scores were calculated. Thematic analysis explored community identified needs. During Phase 2, a focus group was conducted with 11 local psychosocial workers in Amman (September 2016) employing Phase 1 findings to develop a local capacity-building intervention. For the Phase 1 results, community attitudes toward mental health were reported to be rapidly changing. However, continued stigma, lack of knowledge of service availability, and insufficient number of services were noted as barriers to care. Sense of civic engagement and cultural knowledge of local psychosocial actors were noted as significant strengths. However, lack of access to work rights and technical supervision were identified as contributing to burnout, undermining the sustainability of local, grassroots initiatives. A need for training in clinical interventions, along with ongoing supervision, was identified. For the Phase 2 results, local psychologists elected to receive training in culturally adapted cognitive behavior therapy and operational capacity building. The cultural and contextual knowledge of Syrian community members are invaluable. Unfortunately, failure to provide these professionals with basic work rights and technical support have undermined the sustainability of their endeavors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The aim of this study is to examine the efficacy and applicability of the maximal opposition approach to treatment of an Arabic-speaking child with a phonological disorder. A 4:2 year old Jordanian boy, born and raised in Kuwait, received phonological therapy using a maximal opposition approach with major-class distinctions, using a single-case experimental design. The child's speech production accuracy improved. Success with this one child suggests phonological contrast therapy-specifically a maximal opposition approach-could be used to treat other Arabic-speaking children who present with phonological disorders. More research is required before the most appropriate technique and treatment frequency for Arabic speaking children can be determined., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: There are at least 22 Arab league states and sections in Northern Africa, southwestern Asia, and Europe that incorporate the vast Middle Eastern culture. The purpose of this study was to identify the cultural variations in newborn care practices, self-management of common illnesses, and their potential impact on infant welfare., Method: A qualitative design using a focus group approach with 37 Arab mothers in Jordan was used., Results: Findings revealed strong similarities in terms of beliefs, care practices, and the experience of intergenerational conflict in establishing and maintaining traditional practices among mothers. Potentially harmful practices included restrictive swaddling, rubbing a newborn's body with salt, and encouraging the ingestion of herbs in newborns., Discussion: It is important for nurses and midwives to be aware of traditional practices, cultural beliefs, and the implications for infant welfare if they are to effectively engage with families to promote the well-being of the newborn.

There is a scarcity of research on suicidal phenomena in the Muslim world. Therefore, this study aimed at investigating the self-reported prevalence of suicidal thoughts, attempts and motives in 12 Muslim countries. A total of 8417 (54.4% women) university students were surveyed by means of a self-report questionnaire. Overall, 22% of the participants reported suicidal ideation and 8.6% reported attempting suicide. The odds of suicidal thoughts were elevated in Azerbaijan, Indonesia and Saudi Arabia, while reduced ORs were recorded in Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon and Malaysia. While odds of suicide attempts were high in Azerbaijan, Palestine and Saudi Arabia reduced odds ratios (OR) were detected in Indonesia, Iran, Jordan, Lebanon, Malaysia and Tunisia. Taking drugs and using a sharp instrument were the two most frequently used methods to attempt suicide. Only 32.7% of attempts required medical attention. Escape motives were endorsed more than social motives by participants who attempted suicide. Suicidal behaviors were more frequent in women than in men. Compered to men, fewer attempts by women required medical attention. Moreover, our results show that making suicide illegal does not reduce the frequency of suicidal behavior. Results from this comparative study show that suicidal thoughts and attempts are frequent events in young adults in countries where religious scripture explicitly prohibit suicide and the frequencies of nonfatal suicidal behavior show large variation in nations adhering to the same religion.

Background: The Syrian conflict has resulted in major humanitarian crises. The risk is particularly high amongst female children who face additional gendered risks, such as harassment and sexual violence, including a rise in prevalence of child marriage. Despite the importance of this topic, current literature remains relatively scarce., Objectives: This study aims to explore the social and healthcare repercussions of Syrian refugee child marriages in Jordan and Lebanon., Methods: A systematic review of the literature was carried out to gather evidence, from a total of eight articles. Data analysis was conducted using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme check tool to systematically assess the trustworthiness, relevance and results of the included papers., Results: The findings of this research identify tradition, honour, economics, fear, and protection-related factors as drivers of child marriage of refugees in Jordan and Lebanon. These motives overlap with findings regarding access to reproductive health and reproductive rights. The lack of autonomy of the child to give informed consent is augmented in the context of protracted violence and displacement., Conclusion: There is a need for a holistic approach to provide safe spaces, education, and protection to young girls and their families to reduce their acceptance of child marriage.

Using multilevel models, we examined mother-, father-, and child-reported (N = 1,336 families) externalizing behavior problem trajectories from age 7 to 14 in nine countries (China, Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, the Philippines, Sweden, Thailand, and the United States). The intercept and slope of children's externalizing behavior trajectories varied both across individuals within culture and across cultures, and the variance was larger at the individual level than at the culture level. Mothers' and children's endorsement of aggression as well as mothers' authoritarian attitudes predicted higher age 8 intercepts of child externalizing behaviors. Furthermore, prediction from individual-level endorsement of aggression and authoritarian attitudes to more child externalizing behaviors was augmented by prediction from cultural-level endorsement of aggression and authoritarian attitudes, respectively. Cultures in which father-reported endorsement of aggression was higher and both mother- and father-reported authoritarian attitudes were higher also reported more child externalizing behavior problems at age 8. Among fathers, greater attributions regarding uncontrollable success in caregiving situations were associated with steeper declines in externalizing over time. Understanding cultural-level as well as individual-level correlates of children's externalizing behavior offers potential insights into prevention and intervention efforts that can be more effectively targeted at individual children and parents as well as targeted at changing cultural norms that increase the risk of children's and adolescents' externalizing behavior.

Background: Asylum seekers have increased risk of suicide and suicidal behavior, with differences related to origin, gender, and age. There are barriers to communication in clinical encounters between asylum seekers and clinicians. There is insufficient knowledge about how communication in the clinical encounter affects the suicide risk in female asylum seekers., Aims: To explore the documented communication between female asylum-seeking suicide attempters and clinicians and how it affects treatment., Method: The medical records of 18 asylum-seeking women who had attempted suicide were analyzed with content analysis., Results: Communication between patients and clinicians was affected by: the unbearable realities of the women; difficulties for clinicians in decoding languages of distress, and understanding trauma and subjective meanings of suicide; challenges of combining patients' and clinicians' perspectives; and a sense of shared powerlessness., Limitations: The medical records did not give direct access to the patient's experience, only to the patient as documented by the clinician., Conclusion: The results suggest that clinicians working with asylum seekers who have attempted suicide need to develop an understanding of social and cultural factors and of trauma issues. A question for further study is how an enhanced integration of context and subjectivity in psychiatric practice would equip clinicians for the specific challenges encountered.

Aim: This study aims to assess the correlates of stigma toward mental illness among patients diagnosed with major depressive disorder (MDD)., Methods: One hundred and sixty one Jordanian outpatients suffering from MDD completed the study. Participants completed the demographic questionnaire, the Center for Epidemiological Studies for the intensity of depression, and the Devaluation-Discrimination Scale to assess stigma., Results: Participants reported a moderate level of perceived stigma toward mental illness. Age, perceived pain, the number of relapses, and severity of depressive symptoms were significantly correlated with stigma toward mental illness among the study sample. The severity of depressive symptoms was the strongest correlate of stigma toward mental illness., Conclusions: Factors associated with stigma toward mental illness should be carefully considered when implementing anti-stigma programs for patients., (© 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Aim: This study examines the role of mindfulness in predicting psychological distress in Arab parents of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD)., Method: In this descriptive study, parents of 104 children with ASD completed measures of psychological distress and mindfulness. The severity of autism in children was measured using the DSM-V criteria., Results: After controlling for parental age and gender and the severity level of ASD, mindfulness was significantly associated with the levels of anxiety, stress, and depression in parents (anxiety: β = 0.49, p < .001; stress: β = 0.55, p < .001; depression: β = 0.53, p < .001)., Conclusion: Mindfulness-based intervention may help to reduce psychological distress in Arab parents of children with ASD., (© 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Purpose: To explore the knowledge, attitudes and behaviors of parents whose children were diagnosed with epilepsy., Methods: Cross-sectional questionnaire based study of parents who accompanied their children with epilepsy to the child neurology clinics at three university hospitals in Jordan., Results: Most parents (427, 90.3%) knew that epilepsy is not related to a psychiatric disease. Approximately half of the parents (245, 51.8%) used the internet as their source of knowledge, and most used Arabic websites. Searching the word epilepsy was rarely used (51, 10.8%). Most of the parents (428,90.5%) were not restricting their children from watching TV or from using the computer (358,75.5%).However, many parents (280,59.2%) were restricting them from participating in sports. Parents had negative attitudes towards epilepsy; 189 (40.0%)thought that epileptic children can have normal intelligence, and 292 (61.7%) thought that they can continue into higher education. Greater parental knowledge of epilepsy was found to be correlated with the parental education level (p<0.05).Positive attitudes and behaviors towards epilepsy were found to be correlated with a higher parental education level, control of epilepsy,an absence of associated co morbidities, a higher income and internet use (p<0.05)., Conclusion: This study sheds an important light on the current knowledge status and attitudes of parents of children with epilepsy, and is an invaluable tool for tailoring the delivery of information and support resources for families in our region., (Copyright © 2017 British Epilepsy Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Personality taxonomies are investigated using either etic-style studies that test whether Western-developed models fit in a new culture, or emic-style studies that derive personality dimensions from a local culture, using a psycholexical approach. Recent studies have incorporated strengths from both approaches. We combine the 2 approaches in the first study of personality descriptors in spoken Arabic. In Study 1, we collected 17,283 responses from a sample of adults in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and the West Bank (N = 545). Qualitative analysis revealed 9 personality dimensions: Soft-Heartedness, Positive Social Relatedness, Integrity, Humility versus Dominance, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Emotional Stability, Intellect, and Openness . In Study 2, we converted the qualitative model into an indigenous personality inventory and obtained self-ratings of a sample of adults in the same region (N = 395). We also simultaneously obtained self-ratings on an adapted etic inventory that measures the lexical Big Five (N = 325). Psychometric and conceptual considerations yielded a robust 7-factor indigenous model: Agreeableness/Soft Heartedness, Honesty/Integrity, Unconventionality, Emotional Stability, Conscientiousness, Extraversion/Positive Social Relatedness, and Intellect . Initial validation evidence shows that 5 of the 7 factors overlapped with the Big Five, whereas Honesty/Integrity and Unconventionality did not overlap. Also, scores on the indigenous tools were better predicted by relevant demographic variables than scores on the etic tool. Our study demonstrated the viability of combining etic and emic approaches as key to the understanding of personality in its cultural context. (PsycINFO Database Record, ((c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved).)

Purpose: To compare and contrast the Heise "ecological model of gender-based violence" with factors related to "intimate partner violence" (IPV) in Jordan., Methods: Findings of empirical studies examining IPV against Jordanian women were analyzed using the Heise ecological model (1998)., Conclusion: Factors identified in the literature were generally consistent with the ecological model. However, the literature on IPV in Jordan rarely examined the role of community-level factors in the exosystem and sociopolitical factors in the macrosystem. Consequently, little is known about how these exosystem and macrosystem factors affect IPV in Jordan. The Heise model was then adapted to reflect identified factors in the Jordanian cultural context., Practical Implication: More research aimed at uncovering barriers to identification and treatment of IPV targeting the exosystem and macrosystem is needed., (© 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Children's family obligations involve assistance and respect that children are expected to provide to immediate and extended family members and reflect beliefs related to family life that may differ across cultural groups. Mothers, fathers and children (N = 1432 families) in 13 cultural groups in 9 countries (China, Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, Philippines, Sweden, Thailand and United States) reported on their expectations regarding children's family obligations and parenting attitudes and behaviours. Within families, mothers and fathers had more concordant expectations regarding children's family obligations than did parents and children. Parenting behaviours that were warmer, less neglectful and more controlling as well as parenting attitudes that were more authoritarian were related to higher expectations regarding children's family obligations between families within cultures as well as between cultures. These international findings advance understanding of children's family obligations by contextualising them both within families and across a number of diverse cultural groups in 9 countries., (© 2015 International Union of Psychological Science.)

The effects of perceived social support and family demands on college students' mental well-being (perceived stress and depression) were assessed in 2 samples of Jordanian and Turkish college students. Statistically significant negative correlations were found between perceived support and mental well-being. Multiple regression analyses showed that perceived family support was a better predictor of mental well-being for Jordanian students, while perceived support from friends was a better predictor of mental well-being for Turkish students. Perceived family demands were stronger predictors of mental well-being for participants from both ethnic groups. Jordanian and Turkish participants who perceived their families to be too demanding were more likely to report higher depression and stress levels. None of the interactions between social support or family demands and either of the 2 demographic variables were statistically significant. These findings provide a more nuanced view of the relationship between social support and mental health among college students, and point to the relevance of some cultural and situational factors. They also draw further attention to the detrimental effects of unrealistic family demands and pressures on the mental health of college youths., (© 2015 International Union of Psychological Science.)

Anxiety and stress are related to physiological changes in humans. Accumulating evidence suggests a cross-talk between psychiatric disorders and oxidative stress. The objective of this study was to compare oxidative stress and defensive antioxidant biomarkers in a group of refugees with acute anxiety and stress with a group of local Jordanians. The Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A) and the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) Arabic version were used to assess anxiety and stress respectively. Salivary nitric oxide concentration, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) activity and total salivary protein were compared. As expected, refugees showed higher anxiety and stress scores compared with Jordanians. Also, we report a significant increase in salivary nitric oxide and G6PD activity in the refugee group while total protein concentration did not vary between the two groups. This is the first study that demonstrates an increase in nitric oxide and G6PD activity in the saliva of refugees, thus highlighting their potential role as possible biomarkers in anxiety and stress disorders. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., (Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Background: Humanitarian organisations supporting Syrian refugees in Jordan have conducted needs assessments to direct resources appropriately., Aims: To present a model of psychosocial concerns reported by Syrian refugees and a peer review of research practices., Method: Academic and grey literature databases, the United Nations Syria Regional Response website, key humanitarian organisation websites and Google were searched for needs assessments with Syrian refugees in Jordan between February 2011 and June 2015. Information directly reporting the views of Syrian refugees regarding psychosocial needs was extracted and a qualitative synthesis was conducted., Results: Respondents reported that psychological distress was exacerbated by both environmental (financial, housing, employment) and psychosocial outcomes (loss of role and social support, inactivity), which are themselves stressors. Need for improvement in research methodology, participatory engagement and ethical reporting was evident., Conclusions: Participatory engagement strategies might help to address identified psychosocial outcomes. More rigorous qualitative methods are required to ensure accuracy of findings., (© The Royal College of Psychiatrists 2016.)

Background: Research supports the beneficial role of prosocial behaviors on children's adjustment and successful youth development. Empirical studies point to reciprocal relations between negative parenting and children's maladjustment, but reciprocal relations between positive parenting and children's prosocial behavior are understudied. In this study reciprocal relations between two different dimensions of positive parenting (quality of the mother-child relationship and the use of balanced positive discipline) and children's prosocial behavior were examined in Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, the Philippines, Sweden, Thailand, and the United States., Methods: Mother-child dyads (N = 1105) provided data over 2 years in two waves (Mage of child in wave 1 = 9.31 years, SD = 0.73; 50% female)., Results: A model of reciprocal relations between parenting dimensions, but not among parenting and children's prosocial behavior, emerged. In particular, children with higher levels of prosocial behavior at age 9 elicited higher levels of mother-child relationship quality in the following year., Conclusions: Findings yielded similar relations across countries, evidencing that being prosocial in late childhood contributes to some degree to the enhancement of a nurturing and involved mother-child relationship in countries that vary widely on sociodemographic profiles and psychological characteristics. Policy and intervention implications of this study are discussed., (© 2015 Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health.)

Introduction: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of single nucleotide polymorphisms CYP3A4*1B and CYP3A5*3 on tacrolimus dose requirement among kidney transplant recipients., Materials and Methods: Blood levels of tacrolimus were measured using microparticle enzyme immunoassay. Genotyping analysis utilized specific polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism methods for 137 kidney transplant recipients., Results: The median tacrolimus dose was significantly lower in the CYP3A4*1/*1 carriers (0.06 mg/kg/d; range, 0.007 mg/kg/d to 0.17 mg/kg/d) as compared to the CYP3A4*1B/*1B carriers (0.1 mg/kg/d; range, 0.03 mg/kg/d to 0.22 mg/kg/d; P = .001). Patients with at least 1 CYP3A5*1 wild-type allele required higher median doses of tacrolimus (median, 0.08 mg/kg/d; range, 0.03 mg/kg/d to 0.22 mg/kg/d) as compared to the CYP3A5*3 carriers (median, 0.05 mg/kg/d; range, 0.007 mg/kg/d  to 0.17 mg/kg/d; P = .002)., Conclusions: This study showed that tacrolimus dose requirement is lower in Jordanian kidney transplant recipients compared to other populations. Moreover, we found a correlation between genetic variations in CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 enzymes and tacrolimus blood levels among our kidney transplant recipients.

Considering the high burden of injuries, the Health Authority-Abu Dhabi developed a draft electronic and paper-based injury and poisoning notification system (IPNS) to generate better data on the nature and severity of injuries. The pilot testing and evaluation of IPNS was conducted with the specific objectives to (1) identify the characteristics of injury cases, (2) explore potential risk factors, (3) illustrate the nature and type of data, and (4) the working mechanism of data collection. Data were collected from selected hospitals on patient demographics, injury information and clinical assessment. Descriptive, bivariate and multivariate analyses were conducted. Of 4226 injury cases, nearly three-fourths were male, majority were non-UAE nationals, and the mean age was 21.9. Multivariate findings suggested that compared to UAE nationals, non-UAE nationals were 27% more likely to experience fatal, severe or moderate injuries (p = 0.01). Individuals with health insurance were 31% less likely to suffer a fatal, severe or moderate injury compared to those having no health insurance (p < 0.001). This is the first systematically standardised collection of injury data across three facilities in Abu Dhabi, and provides initial information on characteristics and injury risk factors that will help identify the need for evidence-based intervention for injury prevention and control.

This study examined intra- and interindividual variations in parental legitimacy beliefs in a sample of 883 Arab refugee adolescents (M(age) = 15.01 years, SD = 1.60), 277 Iraqis, 275 Syrians, and 331 Palestinians in Amman, Jordan. Confirmatory factor analyses showed distinct latent factors for moral-conventional, prudential, and personal legitimacy items. Older adolescents rated legitimacy lower for personal issues, but higher for prudential issues. Beliefs were associated with socioeconomic status (fathers' education, family size), particularly for personal issues, but were more pervasively associated with displacement-related experiences. Greater war trauma was associated with less prudential legitimacy for all youth and more authority legitimacy over moral-conventional issues for Syrian youth. Greater hopefulness was associated with more authority legitimacy over all but personal issues., (© 2015 The Authors. Child Development © 2015 Society for Research in Child Development, Inc.)

This study advances understanding of predictors of child abuse and neglect at multiple levels of influence. Mothers, fathers, and children (N = 1,418 families, M age of children = 8.29 years) were interviewed annually in three waves in 13 cultural groups in nine countries (China, Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, Philippines, Sweden, Thailand, and the United States). Multilevel models were estimated to examine predictors of (a) within-family differences across the three time points, (b) between-family within-culture differences, and (c) between-cultural group differences in mothers' and fathers' reports of corporal punishment and children's reports of their parents' neglect. These analyses addressed to what extent mothers' and fathers' use of corporal punishment and children's perceptions of their parents' neglect were predicted by parents' belief in the necessity of using corporal punishment, parents' perception of the normativeness of corporal punishment in their community, parents' progressive parenting attitudes, parents' endorsement of aggression, parents' education, children's externalizing problems, and children's internalizing problems at each of the three levels. Individual-level predictors (especially child externalizing behaviors) as well as cultural-level predictors (especially normativeness of corporal punishment in the community) predicted corporal punishment and neglect. Findings are framed in an international context that considers how abuse and neglect are defined by the global community and how countries have attempted to prevent abuse and neglect.

Aims and Objectives: This study explored how Jordanian nurses experienced the transition from home to host country to illuminate the elements of transformation., Background: Much research has been conducted on topics such as the current international nursing shortage and the recruitment of nurses from various countries. International nurses have unique needs with regard to adapting to new host cultures and workplaces; furthermore, the literature has revealed little evidence of nurses' professional and personal experiences related to migration., Design: A qualitative study was conducted, collecting data via individual interviews., Methods: Twenty-five face-to-face and telephone interviews with Jordanian migrant nurses., Result: This study showed that living and working in a host country changes the personal, social and professional attributes of migrant nurses. When nurses migrate, they encounter opportunities and significant challenges in their professional and personal lives. Although Jordanian nurses contributed their knowledge and skills to the UK healthcare system, they encountered enormous professional adaptation demands. Work setting discrepancies between source and host country are likely a major element behind the required nursing profession alteration. nurses' lives are transformed in terms of their personal and social networks in the host country., Conclusions: Social transformation is an integral and inseparable part of engagement with professional organisation(s) in the host community. Professional integration likely has far-reaching effects and consequences involving not only the individual but also their home and host country families and their professional networks., Relevance to Clinical Practice: To provide high-quality nursing care, we must learn about the transformation experience, expand our sense of who we are and gain a degree of control over how we perform our nursing roles when we move away from our home., (© 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background/aims: Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2) is a crucial enzyme involved in the metabolism of Prostaglandins and it has been implicated in several processes. This study was done to investigate the associations of polymorphisms in COX2 gene with the risk of colorectal cancer or polyps development among Jordanian population and to correlate with other ethnicities., Materials and Methods: One hundred and thirty five cases (135) of colorectal carcinoma were studied for COX2 -A1195G polymorphisms employing PCR-RFLP technique, in addition to 104 cases of adenomatous polyps and 115 matched controls taken from the general population., Results: Sixty eight colorectal cancer patients were males and 67 of patients were females with a median age of (58.0±13.9 year). Sixty six (66) of polyp cases were males and 38 were females with a median age of (58.1±14.16). The A-1195G AA carriers were 3.1 times less likely to develop CRC (95% CI: 1.8-5.3, p<0.0001), and 1.8 times less likely to develop polyps (95% CI: 0.99-3.2, p=0.056).The A-1195G AG carriers were at higher risk to develop cancer in a dose dependent manner. The AG carriers were 2.9 time more likely to develop CRC and two times more likely to develop polyps when compared to controls. The A allele was more predominant in controls than in polyps or CRC cases. Carriers of the A allele were 1.6 times less likely to develop polyps and 2.6 times less likely to develop CRC., Conclusion: The presence of the COX-2 -1195AA genotype may protect against risk of developing colorectal cancer.

Acute abdominal pain is a common presenting complaint to both primary and secondary care, and is a frequent cause of hospital admission among deployed personnel. Identification of generalised peritonism on abdominal examination is a classical indicator of intra-abdominal pathology that may warrant exploratory laparotomy. Negative findings at laparotomy should serve as a diagnostic prompt to consider other non-surgical mimics of an acute abdomen., (Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://group.bmj.com/group/rights-licensing/permissions.)

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to assess the knowledge about epilepsy and the attitudes toward people with epilepsy (PWE) and their predictors among university students in Jordan. A self-administered questionnaire was distributed in three of the largest public universities in Jordan, and a total of 500 questionnaires were collected from each university. The number of students who reported that they had heard or read about epilepsy was 1165 (77.6%), and their data were analyzed. A significant proportion of students thought that epilepsy could be caused by the evil spirit (31.5%) and the evil eye (28.1%) or that it could be a punishment from God (25.9%). Epilepsy's most commonly reported treatment methods were the Holy Quran (71.4%), medications (71.3%), and herbs (29.3%). The most common negative attitudes toward PWE were that the students would refuse to marry someone with epilepsy (50.5%) and that children with epilepsy must join schools for persons with disabilities (44.4%). Male students, students of humanities, and students with a low socioeconomic status tended to have more negative attitudes toward PWE. In conclusion, many students have misconceptions about the causes, treatment, and nature of epilepsy, and students have moderate negative attitudes toward PWE. Universities should have health promotion programs to increase awareness of their students about major public health problems such as epilepsy., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Arab culture and Islamic beliefs contribute to values and practices regarding cancer. Mothers in Jordanian society are expected to be the primary caregivers to children., Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore Jordanian mothers' beliefs regarding the causes of cancer in their children and their impact on their role as mothers., Design: A descriptive, qualitative design was used. Individual interviews were conducted with Jordanian mothers (n = 51) of hospitalized children with cancer., Results: Causes of cancer were attributed to supernatural explanations and biomedical explanations. The impact of cancer on these mothers' lives varied. For some, their child's illness resulted in stronger family bonds, whereas for others, the families suffered a state of disequilibrium., Conclusions: Cultural beliefs helped assign meaning to their children's illness. The maternal role of Jordanian women was partially fulfilled or inadequately performed, which in turn affected the functioning and coping abilities of the entire household.

The Activity Card Sort is a valid and reliable assessment tool that was created to assess Participation. It has been translated to several languages and adapted to different international cultures. The most recent version of this tool is the Arabic Heritage Activity Card Sort (A-ACS). The purpose of this study was to establish the psychometric properties of the new Arabic version in Jordanian adults. Forty three Jordanian patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) and 62 healthy adults were recruited to test the psychometric properties of the tool. The A-ACS correlated moderately with the participation index of the Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory (r = -0.458, p < 0.00) (concurrent validity), was able to discriminate between patients and healthy participants on the current and retained levels of participation (F = 5.09, p < 0.03; F = 6.01, p < 0.02, respectively) (discriminative validity), and correlated moderately with the total scores of the Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory (r = -0.458, p < 0.00) and the total score on the Arabic version of the self-report Performance Assessment of Self-care Skills (r = 0.581, p < 0.00) (convergent validity). The tool also showed good test-retest reliability (r = 0.80, p < 0.00) and excellent internal consistency (α = 0.90). The Arabic Heritage of the Activity Card Sort is a valid and reliable tool for Arabic-speaking occupational therapists to use when assessing participation in Jordanian patients with MS or healthy adults. Limitations of this study include using only one diagnostic group from Jordan and examining only the Recovery and Community Versions of the tool. Future studies are needed to examine further psychometric properties for patients with different diagnoses and from different countries in the Arabic region for all three versions of the A-ACS., (Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Purpose: Increasing breast cancer screening (BCS) among diverse women from minority groups is a goal of health care providers and national organizations as a way to help in the early detection and treatment of breast cancer. The purpose of this article is to investigate barriers to BCS encountered by Jordanian and Palestinian women living in the United States (US)., Methods: Descriptive content analysis of interviews of 107 Jordanian and Palestinian immigrant women provided data on BCS barriers that were thematically analyzed., Results: Data revealed 4 barriers that affect Jordanian and Palestinian immigrant women's participation in BCS: (1) culture-specific barriers such as embarrassment, family relationships, fatalism, and traditional healers consultation; (2) immigration-related barriers (citizenship issues and language); (3) general barriers (including nonparticipation in health screening, stigmatization of cancer, fear, and ignorance about BCS); and (4) irrelevant barriers., Conclusions: Clinicians should be cognizant of the culture, beliefs and practices of Arab Middle Eastern immigrant women and the influence of these factors on their decision to participate in routine BCS. To increase participation in BCS and knowledge of breast cancer, appropriate language and culturally sensitive educational materials should be created and made available to Arab Middle Eastern immigrant women., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Thrombosis is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Genetic factors are one component of thrombosis. We studied the prevalence of two mutations that are known risk factors in the pathogenesis of arterial and venous thrombosis in the genetically isolated Circassian population in Jordan. Factor II G20210A and Factor V Leiden single nucleotide polymorphisms were analysed by polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism method in 104 random unrelated subjects from the Circassian population in Jordan. The prevalence rates among the Circassian population in Jordan for Factor II G20210A was 12.2% and for Factor V Leiden was 7.7%. We have shown that the population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and that the prevalences of both mutations are within the range of other ethnic groups. This is the first study to describe Circassian health related genetic characteristics in Jordan. Such population-based studies will contribute to understanding the interaction between genetic and environmental risk factors. It will remain to be seen whether carriers of Factor II G20210A and Factor V Leiden are more likely to develop thrombosis. This issue should be studied in the future to determine the need for screening of these mutations particularly in thrombophilia patients.

Objective: Recording and reporting systems borrowed from the DOTS framework for tuberculosis control can be used to record, monitor and report on chronic disease. In a primary healthcare clinic run by UNRWA in Amman, Jordan, serving Palestine refugees with hypertension, we set out to illustrate the method of cohort reporting for persons with hypertension by presenting on quarterly and cumulative case finding, cumulative and 12-month analysis of cohort outcomes and to assess how these data may inform and improve the quality of hypertension care services., Method: This was a descriptive study using routine programme data collected through E-Health., Results: There were 97 newly registered patients with hypertension in quarter 1, 2012, and a total of 4130 patients with hypertension ever registered since E-Health started in October 2009. By 31 March 2012, 3119 (76%) of 4130 patients were retained in care, 878 (21%) had failed to present to a healthcare worker in the last 3 months and the remainder had died, transferred out or were lost to follow-up. Cumulative and 12-month cohort outcome analysis indicated deficiencies in several components of clinical performance related to blood pressure measurements and fasting blood glucose tests to screen simultaneously for diabetes. Between 8% and 15% of patients with HT had serious complications such as cardiovascular disease and stroke., Conclusion: Cohort analysis is a valuable tool for the monitoring and management of non-communicable chronic diseases such as HT., (© 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.)

Background: Coagulation factor II G20210A and coagulation factor V (Leiden) G1691A single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are major inherited risk factors of venous thromboembolism. In view of the heterogeneity in their world distribution and lack of sufficient information about their distribution among Chechans, we addressed the prevalence of these SNPs in the Chechan population in Jordan, a genetically isolated population., Methods and Results: Factor II G20210A and factor V Leiden SNPs were analysed by polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) method and Amplification refractory mutation detection system (ARMS) respectively in 120 random unrelated subjects from the Chechan population in Jordan. Among the subjects studied for factor II G20210A mutation there were three individuals carrying this mutation as heterozygous (one female and two male), giving a prevalence of 2.5 % and an allele frequency of 1.25 %. No homozygous factor II allele was found. Factor V Leiden G1691A mutation was detected as heterozygous in 22 of 120 of individuals (17 female and five male) indicating a prevalence of 18.3 % and allele frequency of 9.2 %. No homozygous allele was found., Conclusion: Our results indicated that prevalence of factor II G20210A mutation in the Chechan population is similar to prevalence in Jordan and Caucasian populations (1-6 %) while the prevalence of factor V Leiden was higher in the Chechan population compared to Jordan and Caucasian populations (2-15 %).

Objective: To describe and interpret the experiences of and adversities faced by infertile Jordanian women as described from their own perspectives., Design: A qualitative descriptive design., Setting: The women were interviewed at a nonprofit women's organization in the north of Jordan. The organization focuses on empowerment and health issues., Patient(s): This study included a purposive sample of 25 infertile Jordanian women who were unsuccessfully trying to conceive for a minimum of 1 year, and who were receiving treatment for infertility., Intervention(s): Face-to-face, in-depth, semistructured interviews were conducted, audiotaped, and transcribed using thematic analysis., Main Outcome Measure(s): Outcomes were measured using thematic analysis of the interview transcripts., Result(s): Four key adversity themes emerged from the data: the adversity of incomplete being, the social adversity of being infertile, the adversity of another wife, and the adversity of changes in the marital relationship., Conclusion(s): Jordanian women are seriously affected by infertility and experience personal, social, and marital adversities, which affect their well-being. These adversities need to be conceptualized within a framework that can be used to empower and counsel infertile women in all aspects of life., (Copyright © 2012 American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To investigate prevalence of HLA-B27 among general Arab populations and among patients with ankylosing spondylitis (AS), and to review published data., Methods: The prevalence of HLA-B27 was studied among 2579 unrelated healthy Jordanians, almost equally divided among Palestinian refugees and natives of Jordan, reflecting the general population of Jordan. The prevalence of HLA-B27 was also studied among 129 patients with AS, 70 from Jordan, and the remaining 59 from Qatar. HLA typing was performed by standard 2-stage micro-lymphocytotoxicity method. We also reviewed published English language studies of HLA-B27 in Arab patients with AS and general populations retrieved through Medline and cross-reference search., Results: We observed that the general prevalence of HLA-B27 among Jordanians is 2.4%; while the reported prevalence ranges between 2% and 5% among major Arab populations. The prevalence of HLA-B27 among patients with AS is 71% in Jordan and 73% in Qatar, while the reported prevalence from pooled published data from various Arab populations is 64%., Conclusion: From these data one can conclude that HLA-B27 is present in about 2% to 5% among major Arab populations and that its prevalence in Arab patients with AS is closer to 70%.

This paper investigates the extent to which entrenched interests of stakeholder groups both maintain water use practice, and may be confronted. The focus is on the agricultural sectors of Yemen and Jordan, where water resource policymakers face resistance in their attempts to reduce water use to environmentally sustainable levels through implementation of water demand management (WDM) activities. Some farmers in both countries that have invested in irrigated production of high-value crops (such as qat and bananas) benefit from a political economy that encourages increased rather than reduced water consumption. The resultant over-exploitation of water resources affects groups in unequal measures. Stakeholder analysis demonstrates that the more ‘powerful’ groups (chiefly the large landowners and the political elites, as well as the ministries of irrigation over which they exert influence) are generally opposed to reform in water use, while the proponents of WDM (e.g. water resource managers, environmental ministries and NGOs, and the international donor community) are found to have minimal influence over water use policy and decisionmaking. Efforts and ideas attempted by this latter group to challenge the status quo are classified here as either (a) influencing or (b) challenging the power asymmetry, and the merits and limits of both approaches are discussed. The interpretation of evidence suggests current practice is likely to endure, but may be more effectively challenged if a long-term approach is taken with an awareness of opportunities generated by windows of opportunity and the participation of ‘overlap groups’.

The goal of the current study was to investigate potential cross-cultural differences in the covariation between two of the major dimensions of parenting behavior: control and warmth. Participants included 1,421 (51% female) 7- to 10-year-old (M = 8.29, SD = .67 years) children and their mothers and fathers representing 13 cultural groups in nine countries in Africa, Asia, Europe, the Middle East, and North and South America. Children and parents completed questionnaires and interviews regarding mother and father control and warmth. Greater warmth was associated with more control, but this association varied widely between cultural groups.

The prevalence of Takayasu's arteritis (TA) varies greatly among world populations, and little is known about this disease in Eastern Mediterranean Arab populations. We conducted a retrospective chart review of patients diagnosed with TA from 1996 to 2008 at a single large referral center in Jordan. Eight patients (seven females, one male) with angiographically diagnosed TA were seen at the Jordan University Hospital between 1996 and 2008. All patients were of Arabic ethnicity. The age at presentation ranged from 14 to 50 years, and delay in diagnosis ranged from 1 to 10 years. Extra-vascular manifestations included nodular episcleritis, elevated liver enzymes, erythema nodosum, inflammatory-bowel-disease-like illness, Raynaud's phenomena, and constitutional symptoms. Vascular symptoms included postural dizziness, central nervous system deficits, amauroses fugax, and transient ischemic attacks. Aortic arch vessels were involved in all patients, the abdominal aorta was involved in five patients, and the renal arteries in four patients. Major clinical events including severe stroke and cardiac failure were associated with mortality in two patients. Treatment with corticosteroids and immunosuppressive agents resulted in improvement in five patients with follow-up ranging from 3 to 12 years. In conclusion, TA is seen in Arabs, and the clinical spectrum of TA in Arabs in Jordan is similar to that reported in other countries. Increased awareness of the disease may shorten the time to diagnosis and result in a more reliable estimate of disease prevalence.

The present study examined the frequency of smoking, seatbelt use, and vehicular speeding among American and Jordanian college students, and assessed the relationship between these risk behaviors and gender, socioeconomic status, and religiosity. Significantly more Jordanian students were smokers. Jordanian students were less likely than American students to buckle up, but American students were more likely to engage in vehicular speeding. Female students, especially among Jordanians, were less likely than male students to engage in risky behaviors. Among Jordanian participants, smoking and passenger seatbelt use were positively associated with indices of socioeconomic status, and smoking was negatively associated with religiosity.

Our purpose in this report is to describe relationships among knowledge, affect, attitudes, including cultural beliefs, about breast cancer screening (BCS), and health habits to BCS participation in a convenience sample of 130 immigrant women with Jordanian or Palestinian background living in the Washington DC area. Using our analysis of questionnaires we show correlations among knowledge, affect, utility, general health habits, and participation in BCS consistent with previous research in non-Arab samples. Measures of the relationship of cultural factors to BCS participation need refinement. Future research related to BCS among Jordanian and Palestinian women can build on the results of this study.

For patients with diffuse pontine glioma, our institution offers local radiotherapy and supportive care only. The prognosis and do-not-resuscitate orders are discussed upfront with patients' parents. To investigate the effectiveness of this policy, we retrospectively reviewed records of patients with diffuse pontine glioma treated at the institution over a 49-month period. This study included 19 children (16 girls and 3 boys). The median age at diagnosis was 7 years. One patient remained alive at the end of the study, 2 were lost to follow-up, and 16 were confirmed dead. The median survival was 8.2 months. Do-not-resuscitate discussion was documented for 14 patients and successfully initiated for 11. None of those confirmed dead had been offered life support. Contrary to the common belief, our study showed that do not resuscitate should be addressed in Muslim patients with high-risk malignancies. We also found that diffuse pontine glioma warrants further study in developing countries.

The authors conducted an exploratory study among a convenience sample of 260 Jordanian men and women, using self-administered open and closed questions to examine the participants' approach toward wife abuse. In general, there was high awareness of wife abuse and the different types of abuse (mainly physical and psychological), a general tendency to oppose wife abuse, a tendency to blame the victim for abuse, and a lesser tendency to blame the abuse on the husband, marital problems, as well as familial and societal conditions. There was also a strong tendency to consider wife abuse a personal and familial issue rather than a social and legal problem. Therefore, the preferred method for coping with wife abuse and violence was the expectation that the abused wife should change her behavior and assume responsibility to change her husband followed by resorting to informal agents (family or community or religious figures). Less preferred coping methods included confronting the husband and expressing desire to break up or separate and resorting to formal agents (social welfare programs, counseling, legal system), as a last resort in cases of repeated abuse and severe physical violence. The implications of these findings for future research, interventions, and policy formulation are discussed.