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Introduction: Anxiety is the most common psychological problem reported among children with visual impairments. Although cognitive behavior therapy interventions have proven successful in treating childhood anxiety, it is unclear whether they are suitable and accessible for children who have visual impairments. This study aimed to determine if and how traditional cognitive behavior therapy--based interventions could be adapted for use with this specific population by interviewing children with visual impairments themselves. Methods: A qualitative research design was used. Sixteen children with visual impairments (aged 9 to 13 years) participated in two focus group interviews. Participants attended two special schools in the Western Cape, South Africa. Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim, and content analysis was undertaken. Results: Three primary themes emerged from the focus group data: (1) difficulties encountered by children with visual impairments; (2) existing coping strategies; and (3) insight into the concepts of feelings, thoughts and behaviors (central to cognitive behavior therapy). Discussion: The emergent themes and their implications for the adaptation of a cognitive behavior therapy--based anxiety intervention are discussed. Implications for practitioners: Results provide practitioners with guidelines to consider when using or adapting therapeutic techniques such as cognitive behavior therapy for children with visual impairments.

In South Africa, many adolescents are affected by socio-economic adversity, which increases their susceptibility to experiencing stress that negatively affects their mental health. The synthesis of international literature has identified the psychological strengths (that include perceived social support, self-esteem and resilience) as having a protective effect on the mental health of at-risk adolescents who experience stress. Against this background, we argue that psychological strengths may assist South African adolescents in coping with stressors and may mediate the impact of stress on the mental health of adolescents living in conditions of socio-economic adversity. Given that this remains an under-researched area in the South African context, we also highlight the need for South African research that prioritizes the exploration of factors mitigating the experience of stress for adolescents. We also posit that such research should have significant implications for mental-health policy, practice, mental-health promotion and the prevention of mental disorders. We believe that such scholarly inquiries would be central to the intervention strategies aimed at preventing or "containing" the scourge of poverty-induced psychological distress in South African youth.

Background: Children within historically disadvantaged non-Western South African communities are considered as particularly vulnerable to the development of anxiety problems. Although the need for accessible mental health interventions is evident, this need has remained unmet in a country with extreme socio-economic disparities and a lack of mental health resources. Cognitive behavioural therapy-based (CBT-based) interventions that employ brief and intensive delivery methods may overcome existing barriers to access to mental health services faced by many South African children and may ameliorate the burden placed on under-resourced mental health care services. Aim: To provide preliminary evidence on the effectiveness of a brief, intensive CBT-based anxiety prevention intervention conducted in a South African context. Method: A mixed-methods approach, with quantitative and qualitative data, was used to evaluate the effects of the CBT-based programme in a sample of 21 farmworkers' children aged 9–14 years living in disadvantaged semi-rural communities of the Western Cape. A quasi-experimental design with an immediate intervention (experimental) group and a delayed intervention (control) group was applied in the quantitative component of the study. The qualitative component was based on focus group data. Results: In general, positive effects were noted for the CBT-based anxiety prevention programme in these vulnerable children. Quantitative data revealed a trend reflecting a reduction of self-reported anxiety levels. Qualitative support for the acquisition and application of the CBT-based programme skills was also found. Conclusion: This pilot study indicates that a brief, intensive CBT-based prevention programme holds promise for the effective reduction of anxiety in vulnerable South African children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The aim of the study presented here was to determine whether significant differences exist between the fear profiles of South African children in middle childhood (aged 8-13) with different levels of visual impairments and those of their sighted counterparts. Methods: A differential research design was used, and a total of 129 assenting children from three schools in the Western Cape province of South Africa participated. This convenience sample included 67 children with various degrees of visual impairments (20 with severe impairments and 47 with moderate impairments), and 62 gender- and age-matched sighted children in the control group. All the children were administered a short demographic questionnaire and the South African Fear Survey Schedule for Children (FSSC-SA). Results: The results of the FSSC-SA indicated that the most feared item for the children with visual impairments was "Fire-getting burned" and that of the sighted children was "getting HIV." The 10 most common fears of both groups were related mainly to situations in which the possibility of danger and harm was present, with the majority of fears loading onto Factor I (fear of danger and death) of the FSSC-SA. Consistent with previous research, gender differences were apparent across the number, level, and pattern of fears, with the girls consistently reporting more fears than the boys. In addition, the severely visually impaired group reported more fears, a greater intensity of fears, and a more complex pattern of fears than their moderately visually impaired and sighted counterparts. Discussion: These results are discussed in terms of possible influencing factors. Implications for practitioners: The results of the study provide teachers, parents, and others who are involved in the day-to-day lives of children with visual impairments with a glimpse into the children's emotional worlds. They also provide a foundation upon which future intervention and treatment strategies may be built. (Contains 4 tables.)

This study assessed the intercorrelations of scores on the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, the locally standardized Copying Test, and teachers' ratings of scholastic skills in a South African multi-ethnic preschool sample. The study also investigated whether cultural and socioeconomic factors might influence test data. Participants were 71 Black, 101 Coloured, and 66 White children attending preschools in a semirural district. Participants' ages ranged from 4 yr., 9 mo. to 7yr., 0 too. (M=5.8 yr., SD=0.3 yr.). Analysis yielded a correlation of .75 between the test scores and supports the suitability of the widely used Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration in a multi-ethnic sample. Scores on the Copying Test correlated higher with teachers' ratings. However, significant differences in test performance among groups by race and socioeconomic status suggest the rate of perceptual-motor development may be related to cultural factors. Normative data are reported for groups by race and socioeconomic status.

The present study explored the relationship between South African preschool children's intelligence scores achieved on the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test (GHD), and the accuracy of teachers' ratings of the human-figure drawings and teachers' general perceptions of children's intellectual maturity. The GHD was administered individually to 30 boys and 30 girls between the ages of 4 and 6 years (M = 4.5, SD = 0.7) from a multicultural (Black, Colored, and White) preschool near the Cape, South Africa. The three class teachers of these preschoolers provided the ratings and perceptions of each child's intellectual maturity. Results indicated that the teachers' assessments of children's intellectual maturity were fairly similar to the formal measures of children's intellectual maturity using human figure drawings and their own perceptions. It appears that teacher ratings of drawings could be relied upon as a means of assessment. General perceptions of children's intellectual maturity should not be solely relied upon, but instead these perceptions should be used as an aid for enhancing the teachers' assessment of children's intellectual maturity in addition to the rating of human figure drawings.

To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2005.06.002 Byline: Peter Muris (a), Helene Loxton (b), Anna Neumann (c), Michelle du Plessis (d), Neville King (e), Thomas Ollendick (f) Keywords: Anxiety; Screen for child anxiety related emotional disorders; Perceived parental rearing behaviors; South Africa; Children and adolescents Abstract: This study investigated DSM-defined anxiety symptoms in South African youths. Children and adolescents (N=701) from various cultural groups completed the SCARED and a questionnaire measuring perceived parental rearing behaviors. Results indicated that the psychometric properties of the SCARED were satisfactory in the total sample of South African youths, and acceptable in colored and black children and adolescents. Further, colored and black youths displayed higher SCARED scores than white youths, and there were also differences in the perceived parental rearing behaviors of the cultural groups. White youths generally rated their parents' rearing behaviors as less anxious, overprotective, and rejective, but more emotionally warm than colored and black youths. Finally, positive correlations were found between anxious rearing, overprotection, and rejection and anxiety symptoms. The clinical and research implications of these findings are briefly discussed. Author Affiliation: (a) Institute of Psychology, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Burgemeester Oudlaan 50, Suite J5-31, P.O. Box 1738, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands (b) University of Stellenbosch, South-Africa (c) Maastricht University, The Netherlands (d) University of Stellenbosch, South-Africa (e) Monash University, Australia (f) Virginia Polytechnic and State University, United States of America Article History: Accepted 15 June 2005

An important challenge to enhancing community access to mental health interventions in marginalised, transcultural settings is the development of culturally relevant screening measures. Cross-cultural adaptation (CCA) and translation methods offer guidelines for the adaption of existing screening measures for use across cultures with the aim of preserving semantic and construct equivalence as well as validity. Yet, the application of CCA methods has been inconsistent and validation strategies have focused predominantly on expert review and quantitative validity testing. Additionally, potentially important context-specific interpretations of measure items have been lost in translation-heavy approaches. The missing link in the CCA of existing measures may be the addition of culturally sensitive, community-based evaluative methods. This paper presents a report of the application of a seven-step CCA method developed by the first author to address the issue of cultural relevance in the translation and cross-cultural adaptation of the Spence Child Anxiety Scale (SCAS) an anxiety measure for use in a specific South African community context. The findings emphasise the surprising context-specific interpretations of items in measures applied transculturally, which support the case for qualitative, community-based validation of translated, CCA screening measures used to explore the effectiveness of mental health interventions across cultural contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Anxiety is the most common psychological difficulty reported by youth worldwide and may also be a significant problem for children with visual impairments. Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) interventions have proven to be successful in treating childhood anxiety; however, mostly these are not suitable for children with visual impairments, as the materials used are not sufficiently accessible to this population. Objectives: The present study was motivated by the dearth of research on this topic and aimed to examine the effects of a specifically tailored, group-based, universally delivered, CBT intervention for anxiety in children with visual impairments and to examine the influence of three predictor variables (i.e. age, gender and level of visual impairment) on prevention effects. Method: A randomised wait-list control group design with pre-, post- and follow-up intervention measures was employed. The final sample of 52 children (aged 9–14) with varying degrees of visual impairment received the anxiety intervention. Participants were followed over a course of 10 months during which their anxiety symptoms were assessed quantitatively at four time points (T1–T4). Results: The results indicated that the anxiety intervention did not significantly decrease symptoms of anxiety within the intervention groups. However, the intervention appeared beneficial for girls, younger children and legally blind participants. Conclusion: This study demonstrated how CBT interventions can be adapted for use in children with visual impairments. Results obtained provide a foundation upon which future updated anxiety intervention programmes can be built, meeting the need for further research in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to explore the five most frequently reported fears in a sample of university students, and investigate the origins of these fears. The study employed a cross-sectional design with convenience sampling. Data were collected using a self-report questionnaire and analysed using a combination of descriptive statistics and content analysis. Participants consisted of 544 first-year psychology students. This study identified academic failure, animals, general failure, losing loved ones to death, and violence/crime as the top five fears among a sample of university students. 'Conditioning experiences' was one of the most prominent pathways in the acquisition of all these fears. 'Negative information transmission' was also a dominant pathway relating to the origin of fear such as academic failure and violence/crime. However, 'modelling experiences' was not identified as a prominent pathway in the present study. These findings contribute to identifying the origins of first-year students' self-reported fears by using the three pathways theory. These findings may contribute meaningfully to the development and implementation of prevention and intervention programmes at higher education institutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Childhood anxiety presents a serious mental health problem, and it is one of the most common forms of psychological distress reported by youth worldwide. The prevalence of anxiety symptoms amongst South African youth is reported to be significantly higher than in other parts of the world. These high prevalence rates become even more significant when viewed in terms of children with visual impairments, as it is suggested that children with physical disabilities may be more prone, than their non-disabled peers, for the development of psychological difficulties. Objectives: The main aim of this study is to develop, implement and evaluate a specifically tailored anxiety intervention programme for use with South African children with visual impairments. Method: A specifically tailored cognitive-behavioural therapy-based anxiety intervention, for 9–13 year old South African children with visual impairments, will be evaluated in two special schools. The study will employ a randomised wait-list control group design with pre- post- and follow-up intervention measures, with two groups each receiving a 10 session anxiety intervention programme. The main outcome measure relates to the participants’ symptoms of anxiety as indicated on the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale. Conclusion: If the anxiety intervention programme is found to be effective in reducing symptoms of anxiety, this universal intervention will lay down the foundation upon which future contextually sensitive (South African) anxiety intervention programmes can be built. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the experience of childhood fear has been deemed a common phenomenon, in some cases, children’s fears can become excessive and interfere with daily functioning and activities, and may thus warrant clinical attention. It is in cases such as these that reliable and valid methods to assess childhood fears are required. Although normative fear literature describes many effective modes of assessment, these methods are not accessible to all children, and certain accommodations are necessary when assessing the fears of children with visual impairments. This article provides a reflection on a case study where the fears of 67 South African children with varying degrees of visual impairment were assessed using the South African version of the Fear Survey Schedule for Children (FSSC-SA). Aspects relating to child-friendly procedure and accommodations are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Although fears are part of normal development, the living environment of HIV/AIDS affected children is conducive to the development of particular fears. This study examined the fears of 39 South African children (7-13 years) living in a low socioeconomic community with a high prevalence of HIV/AIDS. The aim was to consider if these children were a special population with regard to their fears. The Free Option Method was used to identify the children's fears. Data were analyzed by means of a priori thematic analysis, followed by a qualitative analysis. The expressed fears could be described with fear categories previously reported by normative samples. The wild animal category and specifically snake fears were reported most. The second analysis revealed a substantial minority of fears reflecting life in the South African HIV/AIDS affected context. It was concluded that the children represented a normative population who experienced particular fears due to their special circumstances. Further investigation of HIV/AIDS affected children's fears and related psychological issues is recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This descriptive study attempted to explore the coping strategies and perceived effectiveness of these strategies in response to self-reported fears among a sample of young South African children: 72 girls and 80 boys (mean age six years, two months, SD = 5.32 months, range; 5-7 years). Differences in children's coping strategies and the perceived effectiveness of these strategies with respect to socio-economic (SE) status were also assessed. Self-report data on coping strategies and the perceived effectiveness of these strategies were collected by means of individual semi-structured interviews in conjunction with children's drawings of feared objects. Social/spiritual support was perceived to be the most effective, and the most frequently utilized coping strategy in relation to self-reported fears by the children. Differences that were found with respect to young children's coping strategies in terms of SE background, points out the need for further research in this regard. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This study attempted to obtain normative data regarding the content and frequency of expressed fears of a culturally diverse group of 152 South African preschool children (aged 5-7 years). Method: The study employed four measuring instruments: a biographical questionnaire, the Good-enough-Harris Drawing Test, and individual drawings of feared objects by participants in conjunction with semi-structured interviews. The data analysis included descriptive statistics based on the themes that emerged from the children's drawings and interviews. Results: Fear of animals was the most commonly expressed fear. Other high-frequency fear categories that emerged were fear of the dark, night and bad dreams; fantasy people; real people; and physical harm. For the group as a whole, the results largely support the existing body of literature. Participants expressed between one and nine fears (f = 429; mean = 2.8). Conclusions: This study contributed to a better understanding of both an under-researched psychological phenomenon, fear, and of an under-researched target group of young children. This knowledge is important in order for significant others, such as parents and caregivers, to understand and effectively mediate potentially stressful experiences of young children in their respective capacities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study which examined common childhood fears, coping strategies and perceived efficacy of coping mechanisms among 8- to 13-year-old South African children living in four children's homes. Fears were assessed using the Fear List Method (FLM) and the Fear Survey Schedule for Children Revised (FSSC-R). The study reveals that the rank orders of fears as obtained with the FLM were quite different from those derived from the FSSC-R.