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Background: Only a few decades ago, colorful, small‐scale, heterogeneous, and species‐rich hay meadows or extensive pastures were common, but have often been replaced by species‐poor, uniform, large‐scale multicut meadows. Technological advancements and improved efficiency in grassland management have come at the cost of biodiversity. Methods: In Germany, 150 grassland plots have been investigated since 2006. Using these extensive data, we propose a new compound index for estimating the site‐specific mowing intensity in order to facilitate assessment of the impact of mowing intensity on biodiversity and ecosystem processes. Our index integrates the various qualitative components of mowing machine type, mowing height and use of a conditioner, with the annual number of cuts. Results: The newly proposed index achieves a much finer gradation of mowing intensity compared to the previous quantification based on the number of cuts only. Furthermore, a decrease in plant and arthropod species was observed at higher mowing intensity. Conclusions: The proposed mowing intensity index offers enhanced precision in calculations and can easily be integrated into assessments of land‐use intensity in grasslands. Further, it could serve as a basis for providing subsidies to farmers, who adopt low‐impact mowing practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to optimize the operating path of orchard mowers and improve their efficiency, we propose an MI-DBO (multi-strategy improved dung beetle optimization algorithm) to solve the problem of full-coverage path planning for mowers in standardized quadrilateral orchard environments. First, we analyzed the operation scenario of lawn mowers in standardized orchards, transformed the full-coverage path planning problem into a TSP (traveling salesman problem), and mathematically modeled the U-turn and T-turn strategies based on the characteristics of lawn mowers in orchards. Furthermore, in order to overcome the issue of uneven distribution of individual positions in the DBO (dung beetle optimization) algorithm and the tendency to fall into local optimal solutions, we incorporated Bernoulli mapping and the convex lens reverse-learning strategy in the initialization stage of DBO to ensure a uniform distribution of the initial population. During the algorithm iteration stage, we incorporated the Levy flight strategy into the position update formulas of breeding beetles, foraging beetles, and stealing beetles in the DBO algorithm, allowing them to escape from local optimal solutions. Simulation experiments show that for 18 types of orchards with different parameters, MI-DBO can find the mowing machine's operation paths. Compared with other common swarm intelligence algorithms, MI-DBO has the shortest average path length of 456.36 m and can ensure faster optimization efficiency. Field experiments indicate that the algorithm-optimized paths do not effectively reduce the mowing machine's missed mowing rate, but the overall missed mowing rate is controlled below 0.8%, allowing for the completion of mowing operations effectively. Compared with other algorithms, MI-DBO has the least time and fuel consumption for operations. Compared to the row-by-row operation method, using paths generated by MI-DBO reduces the operation time by an average of 1193.67 s and the fuel consumption rate by an average of 9.99%. Compared to paths generated by DBO, the operation time is reduced by an average of 314.33 s and the fuel consumption rate by an average of 2.79%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tetraploid Ficaria verna is a common spring geophyte in central Europe and is considered invasive in the USA and Canada. It is considered an almost seed‐sterile taxon, relying on vegetative reproduction by underground tubers and aerial bulbils. Recent studies have revealed high levels of population genetic diversity in F. verna, raising the question of how genetic diversity is maintained and which factors may be responsible for the observed patterns. Polymorphic nuclear microsatellite markers were established to define multi‐locus genotypes (MLGs), to analyze fine‐scale spatial genetic structure (SGS) using grid and cross‐sampling schemes, and to quantify genetic diversity within and between nine populations with different disturbance regimes in central Germany. In total, 115 MLGs were identified among a total of 347 samples. The G/N ratio varied between 0.16 and 0.70 among populations, and in each population several unique MLGs occurred. Genotypes were highly intermingled within populations, suggesting a "guerrilla" dispersal strategy. Significant SGS (negative regression slope of kinship coefficients against inter‐individual distances) was found in four out of nine populations in fine‐scale cross‐sampling (up to 4 m) and in only one population in grid sampling (up to 14.6 m). No single MLG was found in more than one population, while many alleles were shared between populations. Within‐population clonal and allelic diversity increased with greater exposure to both anthropogenic and natural disturbances. Regular gap openings, facilitated propagule establishment, and propagule dispersal by water and mowing machines are likely important factors explaining the positive effects of disturbance on local genetic diversity of F. verna. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to provide comprehensive and practical information on particular mechanization means used in the maintenance of permanent grass stands, namely grass cutting technologies without the collection of cut grass biomass - mulching. A sample consisting of six machines classified into three categories (uniaxial tool carriers, single-axle small tractors, cutting machines with a zero turning radius) was tested in practice and functional and operational aspects of the machines were studied on different localities of permanent grass stands. Data measured in the individual machines were used to calculate consumption [l/ha], consumption [l/mth], consumption [l/l of cut biomass] or performance [ha/hour]. The measurements took place on two sites: a site with the permanent grass stand unkempt for a long time and a site regularly maintained by mulching. The study was conducted in the cadastral area of Ostrava City situated in the NE part of the Czech Republic. Results of the study show that the total fuel consumption [l/ha] in the individual mowing machines always at all times higher on plots that were unkempt for a long time. The overall comparison of fuel consumption [l/mth] of the individual types of cutting machines between the localities showed that nearly all tested cutting machines had a higher consumption on sites with permanent grass stands unkempt for a long time. The performance [ha/h] of all cutting machines was higher on the sites that were regularly maintained by mulching in the past. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Litter meadows, historically established for litter production, are species-rich and diverse ecosystems. These meadows drastically declined during the last decades along with decreasing litter use in modern livestock housing. The aim of our study was to identify the drivers of genetic variation in litter meadow species. Therefore, we tested whether genetic diversity and differentiation depend on habitat age, landscape structure, habitat quality, and/or population size. We analysed 892 individuals of Angelica sylvestris, Filipendula ulmaria, and Succisa pratensis from 20 litter meadows across the Allgäu in Baden-Württemberg (Germany) using AFLP analyses. All study species showed moderate levels of genetic diversity, while genetic differentiation among populations was low. Neither genetic diversity nor differentiation were clearly driven by habitat age. However, landscape structure, habitat quality as well as population size revealed different impacts on the genetic diversity of our study species. Past and present landscape structures shaped the genetic diversity patterns of A. sylvestris and F. ulmaria. The genetic diversity of F. ulmaria populations was, moreover, influenced by the local habitat quality. S. pratensis populations seemed to be affected only by population size. All explanatory variables represent past as well as present gene flow patterns by anthropogenic land use. Therefore, we assume that genetic diversity and differentiation were shaped by both historical creation of litter meadows via hay transfer and present mowing with agricultural machines. These land use practices caused and still cause gene flow among populations in the declining habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Priority effects provide an advantage to early establishing species and are thought to significantly affect the course of succession. We conducted a 20-year long experiment sowing high- and low-diversity mixtures in an ex-arable field. We ask how long the effect of sowing persists and which sown species affect the course of succession. The experiment was established in the Czech Republic in five replicate blocks, each containing three random 10 × 10 m plots with three treatments: natural colonisation, sowing low- and high-diversity seed mixtures. The species cover was annually estimated in 12 permanent 1 m2 quadrates within each plot. To identify the effects of sowing, we used an innovative method analysing the data separately for each year using Redundancy analysis (RDA) with identity of sown species as explanatory variables. In the first year, the effect of sowing was small; the peak of explained variability occurred between third and fifth year. The legacy of sowing was detectable in the natural colonisers for 18 years and in the sown species for the whole 20-year period. For some species, the difference between the plots where they were and were not sown remained significant for the whole 20-year period (e.g. Lathyrus pratensis) although the plots were adjacent and the area was mown with the same machine. Other ones (e.g. Trisetum flavescens) colonised all the plots evenly. The long-lasting effect of the initial sowing confirms contingency of successional pathway on the propagule pressure in the time of start of succession due to the priority effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Common hand-mowing methods require large amounts of time and may not provide a uniform height of cut in turfgrass greenhouse experiments. Greenhouse mowing apparatuses are not uncommon in turfgrass research; however, there is little literature on apparatus specifications. Therefore, a simplified mowing track for turfgrass greenhouse experimentation was designed, built, and tested. An experiment was conducted to examine the differences in mowing time required and mowing uniformity among four greenhouse mowing methods. The amount of time required to set up and mow ranged from 0.74 to 1.18 min m-2 for the mowing track, 6.44 to 6.70 min m-2 with hand shears, 6.82 to 7.49 min m-2 with hedge shears, and 2.95 to 3.37 min m-2 with sheep shears. The mowing track resulted in less variation in height of cut compared to the other tested methods. Overall, a mowing track can save time, labor, and provide a more uniform height of cut compared with other greenhouse mowing methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The number of recognized accidents during agricultural work is still very high in Austria. In the years 2008 to 2009, there occurred 84 approved work accidents with mowing machines. The main causes of accidents were the loss of control of machines, transportations or conveyances, hand tools, objects or animals. In the literature, numerous studies of general agricultural and forestry accident situations are available. Detailed studies on specific types of agricultural machines, which describe concrete circumstances and causes of accidents, are in limited numbers. The accident database from the General Accident Insurance Institution and the Austrian Social Insurance Institution of Farmers, with personal and accidental data information about mowing machine accidents, were analyzed. The results showed that most accidents occurred on mixed agricultural farms (68%). The majority of the injured persons were male (86%), over 40-years-old (86%) with an agricultural or forestry education (91%). The most common accidents occurred in the summer months (69%) and on afternoons during the working week (79%). The majority of accidents were caused by contact with the machine (55%) and the loss of control (73%) during their operation (60%) and harvesting work (63%). The most frequently injuries were wounds, fractures and superficial injuries (81%) to the upper and lower extremities (66%). The results of the chi-square test showed significant correlations between the specific task with the form of contact, the working process, the day and season. Results of the odds ratio determination showed an increased risk of suffering serious injury for men in the first half of the year and half of the day due to loss of control over the machine during agricultural harvesting work.

In Japan, land readjustment projects have standardized and expanded the design and size of rice paddy fields. These projects have simultaneously promoted the conversion of levee slopes into stable inclines by expanding the difference in levels between paddy fields, which has expanded levee slopes, i.e. the weeding area. Continuous weeding work is required to prevent erosion and the collapse of steep levee slopes, and serious accidents sometimes occur in the weeding work using brush cutters on such slopes. Brush cutters have been popular for weeding work, but mowing machines are increasingly popular for reasons of safety and work efficiency. However, the levee form was designed based on the assumption of using brush cutters, which recommends small horizontal standing places both at the middle and the bottom of the slope. Therefore, it is necessary to examine whether the form of the levee slope is suitable for mowing machines. We conducted weeding work experiments in two types of levee slopes (with and without standing places) using two types of weeding equipment (mowing machines and brush cutters), and the flora of the levee slopes and the working stress on operators were investigated. Our conclusions are that (1) mowing machines are safer and more efficient than brush cutters and (2) the conventional levee form with standing places will also be effective for mowing machines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among the mechanised works for feed production, harvesting occupies a special place, both through the role it has in animal nutrition and specific characteristics of quality. In order to maintain quality of feed and keep losses to a lower level harvesting must be executed at optimal time and in a short time A basic operation of the technological process of harvesting of feed is cutting the stems of forage plants. The quality and quantity of harvested material are decisively influenced by this operation. Also the quantity, the quality of hay obtained, the growth and the subsequent forage production in the next years are determined by the way of execution of mowing. The mowing machine is used for cutting forage plants remaining from stubble in the form of continued swath with a smaller width than the working width of the machine. The cutting apparatus with two knives with reciprocating motion cuts the forage plants by shearing. The knives are supported and guided by gantries. The operating mechanism of the cutting apparatus with two knives from the mowing machine CDC 1,5 is the type connecting rodcrank-rocker. The knife and the swinging arms form an articulated parallelogram mechanism. The studies of this work were performed on a laboratory stand. The stand for experiments includes: mechanical mower with two knives, the drive of the mower, hydraulic, mechanical transmission and electric motor drive. Different revs of the drive shaft and different speeds of the mower's knives were obtained by changing the transmitted reports. First were determined the velocities and accelerations of the forces acting on the knives in order to determine these forces. After studies have established the necessary conclusions and recommendations. In the context of an increased worldwide demand for food, is becoming increasingly important the use of technology to ensure increases of production on the same land area, while preserving biodiversity and preserving the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on a failure potential for rotary elements used in the agricultural machinery. It presents a structural stress analysis case study which is a comparative analysis using analytical and numerical (finite element method) methods. In the case study, the motion transmission gears of a rotary drum mower have been considered, and the stress distribution on the transmission gears has been investigated considering real loading conditions which were obtained from experimental field operations. The experimental part of the case study was carried out within a clover field. The clover field was harvested by the drum mower, and the loading force on the transmission gears was calculated through torque data measured from tractor power take-off during the harvesting operation. Subsequently, the torque data were used in the finite element method based commercial code to simulate stress distribution on the transmission gears in the digital environment. The simulation results were validated by making comparisons between analytical calculations and simulation examinations based on the material failure criterion. The numerical results and visual print-outs indicated that there was a good correlation between simulation and analytical results, and the stress magnitudes on the transmission gears were within the safe-operating range against maximum dynamic loading conditions. The study presented a simulation-driven stress analysis case study, which contributes to further research into the utilization of engineering simulation technology for agricultural machinery/equipment design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To analyse the effects of reduced green space management in urban areas on the biodiversity of insects, we compared intensely mowed lawns (mowed 12 times per year) with meadows under reduced maintenance (mowed only twice per year) in the city of Tübingen (Baden-Württemberg, Germany). Over the entire field season, 177 wild bee individuals representing 43 species were caught using sweep nets. Areas with reduced maintenance showed significantly higher total species numbers and biodiversity indices. Our research supports the initiative "Bunte Wiese (Colourful Meadow) - Species Diversity in Public Greenspaces" of the University of Tübingen, which is campaigning for the enhancement of species diversity in public urban greenland areas by reorganising intensive mowing into a "twice a year" programme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two methods were developed and tested for the measurement of the mowing machine material feed rate (based on the conditioner power input measured by a torque-meter, and/or on the material change in momentum measured by a curved impact plate). The measurements carried out in the year 2001 proved that a very good linear relationship existed between the conditioner power input, output frequency of the apparatus measuring the impact force by means of the impact plate, and the material feed rate through the mowing machine. The calculated R-Squared values were about 0.95. In the year 2002, the impacts of material and condition (parameters) changes on the mowing machine material feed rate measurement accuracy were measured under laboratory conditions. It was evident from the statistical evaluation that changing crop variety, crop maturity, and intensity of conditioning can have a statistically significant influence on the measurement based on the torque-meter. As concerns the impact plate measurement, it was found that it is not possible on the basis of our measurements to determine statistically the influence of the factors tested.

The impact of materials and conditions (parameters) changes on mowing machine material feed rate measurement accuracy were measured under laboratory conditions. The influence of crop variety, crop maturity and moisture, and intensity of conditioning were tested. The impact of the changing parameters in two measurement methods (based on torque-meter and/or on impact plate) was studied. Eight files of torque-meter and/or impact plate measurement were obtained during our experiments. Statistical analysis was used for data evaluation. Two-sample comparisons were used for torque-meter measurement. It is evident from that evaluation that changing crop variety, crop maturity and intensity of conditioning can have statistically significant influence on the measurement based on torque-meter. For impact plate measurement the analysis of variance was used. It was found out that it is not possible to statistically determine the influence of tested factors on our measurement. Considering these results the material feed rate measurement based on impact plate is better from practical point of view.

Little is known about the household behaviors or beliefs associated with housework among a subset of fathers: those who stay home. Do these men embrace housework as being “part of the job” or reject some chores associated with femininity? Using a combination of in-depth interview, housework activity, and time diary data collected from a sample of 30 stay-at-home fathers, I fill this gap in the literature. I empirically evaluate what types of chores fathers accomplish and detail the nuanced reasons men provide for completing specific tasks more often than others. In doing so, I contribute to the masculinities, housework, and fatherhood literature by uncovering how male caregivers both reinforce and redefine masculine norms through the performance of gendered chores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the most important stage in the agricultural process is harvesting. In this particular stage, the mower machines are some of the most important machines for harvesting forages used in agriculture, that is why we made this study. These machines are usually attached to tractors for a better efficiency. The paper presents some studies on mower machines, which are analised after their cutting apparatus and their work width. Thus, are presented the mower with cutting apparatus through shearing, with cutting appartus with back and forth motion of the knife, then rotary mowers. Also, in the paper are presented and analised some technical characteristics of mowers, which influence their economic performances. From the economic point of view, considering the engine mowers, we concluded that the mowers with 2 knives have a better work capacity, at the same width of mowed furrow, compared to borne mowers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper the working resistance of the pressing mechanism is presented by means of specific relations, allowing their introduction as disturbing factors within the mathematical models of the system tractor functioning - namely the hay and straw baler. After the completion of the dynamical model of this system, the next stage was to write a mathematical model by means of which the dynamic solicitation level in the elements of the pressing mechanism and in the components that ensure motion transmission could be assessed. Solving the mathematical model in multiple versions has been achieved with the Runge-Kutta method of integration. Experiments have validated both the proposed mathematical model and the method to solve it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]