16 results on '"Raquel Assis"'
Search Results
2. Models for the retention of duplicate genes and their biological underpinnings [version 1; peer review: 2 approved]
- Author
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Amanda E. Wilson, David A. Liberles, Malgorzata M. O'Reilly, Gavin Conant, Barbara Holland, and Raquel Assis
- Subjects
gene duplication ,probabilistic modeling ,theoretical biology ,Markov model ,synteny ,phylogenetic analysis ,eng ,Medicine ,Science - Abstract
Gene content in genomes changes through several different processes, with gene duplication being an important contributor to such changes. Gene duplication occurs over a range of scales from individual genes to whole genomes, and the dynamics of this process can be context dependent. Still, there are rules by which genes are retained or lost from genomes after duplication, and probabilistic modeling has enabled characterization of these rules, including their context-dependence. Here, we describe the biology and corresponding mathematical models that are used to understand duplicate gene retention and its contribution to the set of biochemical functions encoded in a genome.
- Published
- 2023
- Full Text
- View/download PDF
3. Rapid functional divergence after small-scale gene duplication in grasses
- Author
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Xueyuan Jiang and Raquel Assis
- Subjects
Gene duplication ,Expression divergence ,Neofunctionalization ,Evolution ,QH359-425 - Abstract
Abstract Background Gene duplication has played an important role in the evolution and domestication of flowering plants. Yet little is known about how plant duplicate genes evolve and are retained over long timescales, particularly those arising from small-scale duplication (SSD) rather than whole-genome duplication (WGD) events. Results We address this question in the Poaceae (grass) family by analyzing gene expression data from nine tissues of Brachypodium distachyon, Oryza sativa japonica (rice), and Sorghum bicolor (sorghum). Consistent with theoretical predictions, expression profiles of most grass genes are conserved after SSD, suggesting that functional conservation is the primary outcome of SSD in grasses. However, we also uncover support for widespread functional divergence, much of which occurs asymmetrically via the process of neofunctionalization. Moreover, neofunctionalization preferentially targets younger (child) duplicate gene copies, is associated with RNA-mediated duplication, and occurs quickly after duplication. Further analysis reveals that functional divergence of SSD-derived genes is positively correlated with both sequence divergence and tissue specificity in all three grass species, and particularly with anther expression in B. distachyon. Conclusions Our results suggest that SSD-derived grass genes often undergo rapid functional divergence that may be driven by natural selection on male-specific phenotypes. These observations are consistent with those in several animal species, suggesting that duplicate genes take similar evolutionary trajectories in plants and animals.
- Published
- 2019
- Full Text
- View/download PDF
4. Proposal of managerial standards for new product portfolio management in Brazilian pharmaceutical companies
- Author
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Raquel Assis Moreira and Lin Chih Cheng
- Subjects
Gestão de portfólio ,Produtos farmacêuticos ,Indústria farmacêutica ,Brasil ,Portfolio management ,Pharmaceutical products ,Pharmaceutical industry ,Brazil ,Pharmacy and materia medica ,RS1-441 - Abstract
New Product Portfolio Management is aimed at helping decision-makers better select projects for new products based on key criteria for the manufacturer. The Brazilian pharmaceutical industry has been undergoing change due to stricter sanitary requirements following the enactment of the Generic Law in 1999. This paper presents the results of a research study aimed at clarifying the rationale employed by national pharmaceutical companies in selecting and prioritizing their new product development projects. Consequently, proposals for an analytical structure that could help these companies better select their products were produced. The research was carried out using case study methodology in which four different companies were investigated. The results of the field study confirmed that these companies had a non-structured Product Development System and that the selection of new product development projects was made on a non-systematic basis. The research also identified key criteria for the selection of projects of new pharmaceutical products, which provided the basis for the preparation of a proposal for a managerial standard for application of New Product Portfolio Management.A gestão de portfólio de projetos de novos produtos visa a auxiliar os tomadores de decisão a selecionar projetos de novos produtos considerando critérios importantes para a organização. A indústria farmacêutica brasileira tem passado por transformações devido ao aumento das exigências sanitárias após a Lei de Genéricos, de 1999. O objetivo deste trabalho foi entender como as indústrias farmacêuticas brasileiras selecionam seus projetos de desenvolvimento de novos produtos e propor uma estrutura que possa auxiliar estas empresas a selecionar seus projetos de produtos. Foi utilizada a metodologia de estudo de caso e uma mostra de quatro organizações foi investigada. Os resultados indicam que essas empresas apresentam um desenvolvimento de produtos não estruturado e que a seleção de projetos de novos produtos é realizada de forma não-sistemática. Critérios importantes para a seleção de projetos de novos produtos foram identificados e utilizados para elaboração de um padrão gerencial para aplicação da gestão de portfólio de projetos de novos produtos.
- Published
- 2010
- Full Text
- View/download PDF
5. Strong epistatic selection on the RNA secondary structure of HIV.
- Author
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Raquel Assis
- Subjects
Immunologic diseases. Allergy ,RC581-607 ,Biology (General) ,QH301-705.5 - Abstract
A key question in evolutionary genomics is how populations navigate the adaptive landscape in the presence of epistasis, or interactions among loci. This problem can be directly addressed by studying the evolution of RNA secondary structures, for which there is constraint to maintain pairing between Watson-Crick (WC) sites. Replacement of a nucleotide at one site of a WC pair reduces fitness by disrupting binding, which can be restored via a compensatory replacement at the interacting site. Here, I present the first genome-scale analysis of epistasis on the RNA secondary structure of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). Comparison of polymorphism frequencies at ancestrally conserved sites reveals that selection against replacements is ∼ 2.7 times stronger at WC than at non-WC sites, such that nearly 50% of constraint can be attributed to epistasis. However, almost all epistatic constraint is due to selection against conversions of WC pairs to unpaired (UP) nucleotides, whereas conversions to GU wobbles are only slightly deleterious. This disparity is also evident in pairs with second-site compensatory replacements; conversions from UP nucleotides to WC pairs increase median fitness by ∼ 4.2%, whereas conversions from GU wobbles to WC pairs only increase median fitness by ∼ 0.3%. Moreover, second-site replacements that convert UP nucleotides to GU wobbles also increase median fitness by ∼ 4%, indicating that such replacements are nearly as compensatory as those that restore WC pairing. Thus, WC peaks of the HIV-1 epistatic adaptive landscape are connected by high GU ridges, enabling the viral population to rapidly explore distant peaks without traversing deep UP valleys.
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- 2014
- Full Text
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6. A strong deletion bias in nonallelic gene conversion.
- Author
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Raquel Assis and Alexey S Kondrashov
- Subjects
Genetics ,QH426-470 - Abstract
Gene conversion is the unidirectional transfer of genetic information between orthologous (allelic) or paralogous (nonallelic) genomic segments. Though a number of studies have examined nucleotide replacements, little is known about length difference mutations produced by gene conversion. Here, we investigate insertions and deletions produced by nonallelic gene conversion in 338 Drosophila and 10,149 primate paralogs. Using a direct phylogenetic approach, we identify 179 insertions and 614 deletions in Drosophila paralogs, and 132 insertions and 455 deletions in primate paralogs. Thus, nonallelic gene conversion is strongly deletion-biased in both lineages, with almost 3.5 times as many conversion-induced deletions as insertions. In primates, the deletion bias is considerably stronger for long indels and, in both lineages, the per-site rate of gene conversion is orders of magnitudes higher than that of ordinary mutation. Due to this high rate, deletion-biased nonallelic gene conversion plays a key role in genome size evolution, leading to the cooperative shrinkage and eventual disappearance of selectively neutral paralogs.
- Published
- 2012
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7. Learning Retention Mechanisms and Evolutionary Parameters of Duplicate Genes from Their Expression Data
- Author
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Michael DeGiorgio and Raquel Assis
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Computer science ,neural network ,Decision tree ,Gene Expression ,Computational biology ,Biology ,AcademicSubjects/SCI01180 ,Evolution, Molecular ,Gene expression ,Gene duplication ,Genetics ,Methods ,Ornstein–Uhlenbeck ,Animals ,Gene ,Molecular Biology ,Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics ,Natural selection ,neofunctionalization ,Artificial neural network ,Models, Genetic ,AcademicSubjects/SCI01130 ,gene duplication ,Phenotype ,ComputingMethodologies_PATTERNRECOGNITION ,Subfunctionalization ,Neofunctionalization ,Drosophila ,ComputingMethodologies_GENERAL ,Neural Networks, Computer ,Classifier (UML) ,subfunctionalization ,Functional divergence ,Software - Abstract
Learning about the roles that duplicate genes play in the origins of novel phenotypes requires an understanding of how their functions evolve. To date, only one method—CDROM—has been developed with this goal in mind. In particular, CDROM employs gene expression distances as proxies for functional divergence, and then classifies the evolutionary mechanisms retaining duplicate genes from comparisons of these distances in a decision tree framework. However,CDROMdoes not account for stochastic shifts in gene expression or leverage advances in contemporary statistical learning for performing classification, nor is it capable of predicting the underlying parameters of duplicate gene evolution. Thus, here we developCLOUD, a multi-layer neural network built upon a model of gene expression evolution that can both classify duplicate gene retention mechanisms and predict their underlying evolutionary parameters. We show that not only is theCLOUDclassifier substantially more powerful and accurate thanCDROM, but that it also yields accurate parameter predictions, enabling a better understanding of the specific forces driving the evolution and long-term retention of duplicate genes. Further, application of theCLOUDclassifier and predictor to empirical data fromDrosophilarecapitulates many previous findings about gene duplication in this lineage, showing that new functions often emerge rapidly and asymmetrically in younger duplicate gene copies, and that functional divergence is driven by strong natural selection. Hence,CLOUDrepresents the best available method for classifying retention mechanisms and predicting evolutionary parameters of duplicate genes, thereby also highlighting the utility of incorporating sophisticated statistical learning techniques to address long-standing questions about evolution after gene duplication.
- Published
- 2020
8. Rapid functional divergence after small-scale gene duplication in grasses
- Author
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Raquel Assis and Xueyuan Jiang
- Subjects
0106 biological sciences ,0301 basic medicine ,Gene duplication ,Neofunctionalization ,Evolution ,Biology ,Genes, Plant ,Poaceae ,010603 evolutionary biology ,01 natural sciences ,Evolution, Molecular ,03 medical and health sciences ,Open Reading Frames ,Gene Expression Regulation, Plant ,Genes, Duplicate ,QH359-425 ,Gene ,Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics ,Phylogeny ,Sorghum ,Expression divergence ,Natural selection ,Oryza sativa ,Base Sequence ,Genetic Variation ,food and beverages ,Oryza ,biology.organism_classification ,Phenotype ,030104 developmental biology ,Evolutionary biology ,Organ Specificity ,Brachypodium distachyon ,Functional divergence ,Research Article ,Brachypodium - Abstract
Background Gene duplication has played an important role in the evolution and domestication of flowering plants. Yet little is known about how plant duplicate genes evolve and are retained over long timescales, particularly those arising from small-scale duplication (SSD) rather than whole-genome duplication (WGD) events. Results We address this question in the Poaceae (grass) family by analyzing gene expression data from nine tissues of Brachypodium distachyon, Oryza sativa japonica (rice), and Sorghum bicolor (sorghum). Consistent with theoretical predictions, expression profiles of most grass genes are conserved after SSD, suggesting that functional conservation is the primary outcome of SSD in grasses. However, we also uncover support for widespread functional divergence, much of which occurs asymmetrically via the process of neofunctionalization. Moreover, neofunctionalization preferentially targets younger (child) duplicate gene copies, is associated with RNA-mediated duplication, and occurs quickly after duplication. Further analysis reveals that functional divergence of SSD-derived genes is positively correlated with both sequence divergence and tissue specificity in all three grass species, and particularly with anther expression in B. distachyon. Conclusions Our results suggest that SSD-derived grass genes often undergo rapid functional divergence that may be driven by natural selection on male-specific phenotypes. These observations are consistent with those in several animal species, suggesting that duplicate genes take similar evolutionary trajectories in plants and animals. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12862-019-1415-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
- Published
- 2019
9. Population-specific sequence and expression differentiation in Europeans
- Author
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Raquel Assis and Xueyuan Jiang
- Subjects
Evolutionary biology ,Demographic history ,SNP ,Single-nucleotide polymorphism ,Copy-number variation ,Epigenetics ,Biology ,Phenotype ,Gene ,Sequence (medicine) - Abstract
Much of the enormous phenotypic variation observed across human populations is thought to have arisen from events experienced as our ancestors peopled different regions of the world. However, little is known about the genes involved in these population-specific adaptations. Here we explore this problem by simultaneously examining population-specific sequence and expression differentiation in four human populations. In particular, we design a branch-based statistic to estimate population-specific differentiation in four populations, and apply this statistic to single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and RNA-seq data from Italian, British, Finish, and Yoruban populations. As expected, genome-wide estimates of sequence and expression differentiation each independently recapitulate the known demographic history of these four human populations, highlighting the utility of our statistic for identifying genic targets of population-specific adaptations. Application of our statistic reveals that genes containing large copy number variations (CNVs) have elevated levels of population-specific sequence and expression differentiation, consistent with the hypothesis that gene turnover is a key reservoir of adaptive variation. Further, European genes displaying population-specific sequence and expression differentiation are enriched for functions related to epigenetic regulation, immunity, and reproduction. Together, our findings illustrate that population-specific sequence and expression differentiation in humans may preferentially target genes with CNVs and play important roles in a diversity of adaptive and disease-related phenotypes.
- Published
- 2019
- Full Text
- View/download PDF
10. Rapid functional divergence of grass duplicate genes
- Author
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Xueyuan Jiang and Raquel Assis
- Subjects
Oryza sativa ,Natural selection ,Evolutionary biology ,Gene duplication ,food and beverages ,Neofunctionalization ,Brachypodium distachyon ,Biology ,biology.organism_classification ,Gene ,Phenotype ,Functional divergence - Abstract
Gene duplication has played an important role in the evolution and domestication of flowering plants. Yet little is known about how plant duplicate genes evolve and are retained over long timescales, particularly those arising from small-scale duplication (SSD) rather than whole-genome duplication (WGD) events. Here we address this question in the Poaceae (grass) family by analyzing gene expression data from nine tissues ofBrachypodium distachyon,Oryza sativa japonica(rice), andSorghum bicolor(sorghum). Consistent with theoretical predictions, expression profiles of most grass genes are conserved after SSD, suggesting that functional conservation is the primary outcome of SSD in grasses. However, we also uncover support for widespread functional divergence, much of which occurs asymmetrically via the process of neofunctionalization. Moreover, neofunctionalization preferentially targets younger (child) duplicate gene copies, is associated with RNA-mediated duplication, and occurs quickly after duplication. Further analysis reveals that functional divergence of SSD-derived genes is positively correlated with both sequence divergence and tissue specificity in all three grass species, and particularly with anther expression inB. distachyon. Therefore, as found in many animal species, SSD-derived grass genes often undergo rapid functional divergence that may be driven by natural selection on male-specific phenotypes.
- Published
- 2018
- Full Text
- View/download PDF
11. CDROM: Classification of Duplicate gene RetentiOn Mechanisms
- Author
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Brent R. Perry and Raquel Assis
- Subjects
0106 biological sciences ,0301 basic medicine ,Source code ,Gene duplication ,Neofunctionalization ,media_common.quotation_subject ,Biology ,010603 evolutionary biology ,01 natural sciences ,Evolution, Molecular ,03 medical and health sciences ,Functional evolution ,Software ,Genes, Duplicate ,Subfunctionalization ,Animals ,Humans ,Gene ,Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics ,Phylogeny ,media_common ,Information retrieval ,business.industry ,R package ,030104 developmental biology ,ComputingMethodologies_PATTERNRECOGNITION ,CD-ROM ,Evolutionary biology ,Gene expression evolution ,business ,Research Article - Abstract
Gene duplication is a major source of new genes that is thought to play an important role in phenotypic innovation. Though several mechanisms have been hypothesized to drive the functional evolution and long-term retention of duplicate genes, there are currently no software tools for assessing their genome-wide contributions. Thus, the evolutionary mechanisms by which duplicate genes acquire novel functions remain unclear in a number of taxa. In a recent study, researchers developed a phylogenetic approach that uses gene expression data from two species to classify the mechanisms underlying the retention of duplicate genes (Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110:1740917414, 2013). We have implemented their classification method, as well as a more generalized method, in the R package CDROM, enabling users to apply these methods to their data and gain insights into the origin of novel biological functions after gene duplication. The CDROM R package, source code, and user manual for the R package are available for download from CRAN at https://cran.rstudio.com/web/packages/CDROM/ . Additionally, the CDROM R source code, user manual for running CDROM from the source code, and sample dataset used in this manuscript can be accessed at www.personal.psu.edu/rua15/software.html . CDROM is the first software package that enables genome-wide classification of the mechanisms driving the long-term retention of duplicate genes. It is user-friendly and flexible, providing researchers with a tool for studying the functional evolution of duplicate genes in a variety of taxa.
- Published
- 2016
12. Gradual divergence and diversification of mammalian duplicate gene functions
- Author
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Raquel Assis and Doris Bachtrog
- Subjects
Phylogenetic tree ,Evolutionary biology ,Gene duplication ,Gene expression ,Evolution of mammals ,Biology ,Phenotype ,Genome ,Gene ,Functional divergence - Abstract
Gene duplication provides raw material for the evolution of functional innovation. We recently developed a phylogenetic method to classify the evolutionary processes underlying the retention and functional evolution of duplicate genes by quantifying divergence of their gene expression profiles. Here, we apply our method to pairs of duplicate genes in eight mammalian genomes, using data from 11 distinct tissues to construct spatial gene expression profiles. We find that young mammalian duplicates are often functionally conserved, and that functional divergence gradually increases with evolutionary distance between species. Examination of expression patterns in genes with conserved and new functions supports the ?out-of-testes? hypothesis, in which new genes arise with testis-specific functions and acquire functions in other tissues over time. While new functions tend to be tissue-specific, there is no bias toward expression in any particular tissue. Thus, duplicate genes acquire a diversity of functions outside of the testes, possibly contributing to the origin of a multitude of complex phenotypes during mammalian evolution.
- Published
- 2014
- Full Text
- View/download PDF
13. Conserved Proteins Are Fragile
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Raquel Assis and Alexey S. Kondrashov
- Subjects
Male ,Nonsense mutation ,Mutation, Missense ,Biology ,Conserved sequence ,Evolution, Molecular ,Protein sequencing ,Genetic variation ,Genetics ,Animals ,Protein Interaction Domains and Motifs ,Amino Acid Sequence ,Amino Acids ,Selection, Genetic ,Molecular Biology ,Peptide sequence ,Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics ,Discoveries ,Conserved Sequence ,Natural selection ,Models, Genetic ,Gene Expression Profiling ,Genetic Variation ,Proteins ,Biological Evolution ,Gene expression profiling ,Codon, Nonsense ,Organ Specificity ,Drosophila ,Female ,Function (biology) - Abstract
Levels of selective constraint vary among proteins. Although strong constraint on a protein is often attributed to its functional importance, evolutionary rate may also be limited if a protein is fragile, such that a large proportion of amino acid replacements reduce its fitness. To determine the relative contributions of essentiality and fragility to selective constraint, we compared relationships of selection against nonsense mutations (snon) and selection against missense mutations (smis) to protein sequence conservation (Ka). As expected, snon is greater than smis; however, the correlation between smis and Ka is nearly three times stronger than the correlation between snon and Ka. Moreover, examination of relationships to gene expression level, tissue specificity, and number of protein-protein interactions shows that smis is more strongly correlated than snon to all three measures of biological function. Thus, our analysis reveals that slowly evolving proteins are under strong selective constraint primarily because they are fragile, and that this association likely exists because allowing a protein to function improperly, rather than removing it from a biological network, can negatively affect the functions of other molecules it interacts with and their downstream products.
- Published
- 2013
14. Rapid repetitive element-mediated expansion of piRNA clusters in mammalian evolution
- Author
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Raquel Assis and Alexey S. Kondrashov
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Genetics ,Transposable element ,Recombination, Genetic ,Small RNA ,endocrine system ,Multidisciplinary ,Time Factors ,urogenital system ,Piwi-interacting RNA ,Genetic Variation ,Biology ,Biological Sciences ,Rats ,Evolution, Molecular ,Mice ,Molecular evolution ,Multigene Family ,Gene duplication ,Gene family ,Animals ,Ectopic recombination ,RNA, Small Interfering ,Gene - Abstract
Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) are ≈30 nucleotide noncoding RNAs that may be involved in transposon silencing in mammalian germline cells. Most piRNA sequences are found in a small number of genomic regions referred to as clusters, which range from 1 to hundreds of kilobases. We studied the evolution of 140 rodent piRNA clusters, 103 of which do not overlap protein-coding genes. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that 14 clusters were acquired after rat–mouse divergence and another 44 after rodent–primate divergence. Most clusters originated in a process analogous to the duplication of protein-coding genes by ectopic recombination, via insertions of long sequences that were mediated by flanking chromosome-specific repetitive elements (REs). Source sequences for such insertions are often located on the same chromosomes and also harbor clusters. The rate of piRNA cluster expansion is higher than that of any known gene family and, in contrast to other large gene families, there was not a single cluster loss. These observations suggest that piRNA cluster expansion is driven by positive selection, perhaps caused by the need to silence the ever-expanding repertoire of mammalian transposons.
- Published
- 2009
15. Plantas medicinais e outros produtos vegetais da Farmacopéia Brasileira
- Author
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Raquel Assis Moreira, Maria G.L. Brandão, Roberto Luís de Melo Monte-Mór, and Gustavo Pereira Cosenza
- Subjects
Traditional medicine ,Native american ,business.industry ,Brasil ,Official Pharmacopoeia ,lcsh:RS1-441 ,Native plant ,plantas medicinais ,law.invention ,Biotechnology ,lcsh:Pharmacy and materia medica ,Geography ,law ,Pharmacopoeia ,Farmacopéia Brasileira ,General Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics ,Medicinal plants ,business ,Brazil ,Pharmaceutical industry ,medicinal plants - Abstract
In this paper, we describe the results of a thorough survey in the four editions of the Brazilian Official Pharmacopoeia (FBRAS), in a search for data about the plants and other botanical products included in them. The growth of the pharmaceutical industry since the second half of last century markedly affected the Brazilian official medicine. The paper analyses the transformation within the Pharmacopoeia, focusing on the presence of Monographs for Native medicinal plants. The result showed a strong substitution of Native American medicinal plants by industrialized medicine and foreign medicinal plants in FBRAS and confirms the necessity of investiments in research for the validation of Brazilian Native plants. Este artigo descreve os resultados de uma extensa revisão efetuada nas quatro edições da Farmacopéia Brasileira, buscando dados sobre as plantas medicinais e outros produtos vegetais nela descritos. O crescimento da indústria farmacêutica internacional a partir da segunda metade do século passado afetou intensamente a medicina oficial no Brasil. O texto faz uma breve análise das transformações sofridas pela Farmacopéia, tomando como base a existência de Monografias para as espécies vegetais nativas. Os resultados do estudo demonstram uma intensa substituição das plantas nativas do Brasil por medicamentos industrializados e outros produtos vegetais estrangeiros, confirmando assim a necessidade de investimentos em pesquisa de validação das nossas plantas medicinais.
- Published
- 2006
16. Interesse dos estudantes de Farmácia e Biologia por plantas medicinais e fitoterapia
- Author
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Raquel Assis Moreira, Maria G.L. Brandão, and F. de A. Acúrcio
- Subjects
lcsh:Pharmacy and materia medica ,Biologia ,lcsh:RS1-441 ,Farmácia ,General Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics ,fitoterapia ,Estudantes ,plantas medicinais - Abstract
Este trabalho descreve os resultados obtidos em um levantamento realizado com 262 estudantes dos cursos de Farmacia e Biologia, de varias partes do Brasil, sobre o tema Plantas Medicinais e Fitoterapia. Foram aplicados questionarios com questoes relativas aos dados pessoais de cada estudante e questoes relacionadas a temas, como por exemplo: a) por que o estudante se interessava por Plantas Medicinais e Fitoterapia? e b) estudante deveria citar cinco plantas que mais conhecia e/ou utilizava. Os resultados da pesquisa demonstraram que os estudantes de Farmacia e Biologia reconhecem a importância das Plantas Medicinais e da Fitoterapia para o seu futuro desempenho como profissionais e tem interesse em se aprimorar nessa area de conhecimento. A alta frequencia de estudantes que consideraram a fitoterapia mais eficaz do que os medicamentos convencionais e a baixa frequencia daqueles que associaram plantas medicinais a riqueza da biodiversidade brasileira foram resultados preocupantes. Um ponto positivo foi o grande numero de citacoes de plantas medicinais que contam com algum estudo de validacao, como sendo as mais conhecidas e utilizadas. Consideramos interessante que as disciplinas dos Cursos de Farmacia e Biologia, envolvidas com o tema, concentrem‑se no estudo de plantas medicinais ja conhecidas e utilizadas pelos estudantes, capacitando‑os nos aspectos tecnico‑cientificos de cada especie e seus produtos.
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