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Diffusion has become both an important concept for studying policy spread and a popular governance approach, particularly where direct coercion is unavailable or undesirable. However, the prevailing mechanism‐centered concept is difficult to measure and poorly captures the governance potential of policy diffusion. To address these issues, this article presents a new channel‐centered framework that distinguishes between six soft policy diffusion channels: autonomous, collaborative, exemplary, persuasive, organized, and funded diffusion. The framework is probed by studying local climate change adaptation policy using original survey data collected from the administrations of 190 municipalities located in the central German state of Hessen. The regression results indicate that the local institutionalization of adaptation in Hessen is associated with several interventions by higher levels of government, including the provision of a policy model, a municipal climate network, and grant programs. However, the density of concrete adaptation measures is associated with noninstitutionalized exchanges between municipalities. External grants are also found to be more effective in institutionalizing adaptation in larger municipalities. These results demonstrate the usefulness of the framework for distinguishing and comparing different diffusion channels and suggest that different types of interventions may be required to effectively support adaptation policy development at the local level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The worsening climate crisis has increased the urgency of transitioning energy systems from fossil fuels to renewable sources. However, many industrialized countries are struggling to meet their growing demand for renewable energy (RE) through domestic production alone and, therefore, seek to import additional RE using carriers such as hydrogen, ammonia, or metals. The pressing question for RE importers is therefore how to select trading partners, i.e., RE exporting countries. Recent research has identified a plethora of different selection criteria, reflecting the complexity of energy systems and international cooperation. However, there is little guidance on how to reduce this complexity to more manageable levels as well as a lack of tools for effective partner evaluation. This article aims to fill these gaps. It proposes a new multidimensional framework for evaluating and comparing potential RE trading partners based on four dimensions: economy and technology, environment and development, regulation and governance, and innovation and cooperation. Focusing on Germany as an RE importer, an exploratory factor analysis is used to identify a consolidated set of composite selection criteria across these dimensions. The results suggest that Germany's neighboring developed countries and current net energy exporters, such as Canada and Australia, are among the most attractive RE trading partners for Germany. A dashboard tool has been developed to provide the framework and composite criteria, including adjustable weights to reflect the varying preferences of decision-makers and stakeholders. The framework and the dashboard can provide helpful guidance and transparency for partner selection processes, facilitating the creation of RE trade networks that are essential for a successful energy transition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID-19 pandemic has made clear the need for effective and rapid vaccine development methods. Conventional inactivated virus vaccines, together with new technologies like vector and mRNA vaccines, were the first to be rolled out. However, the traditional methods used for virus inactivation can affect surface-exposed antigen, thereby reducing vaccine efficacy. Gamma rays have been used in the past to inactivate viruses. We recently proposed that high-energy heavy ions may be more suitable as an inactivation method because they increase the damage ratio between the viral nucleic acid and surface proteins. Here, we demonstrate that irradiation of the influenza virus using heavy ion beams constitutes a suitable method to develop effective vaccines, since immunization of mice by the intranasal route with the inactivated virus resulted in the stimulation of strong antigen-specific humoral and cellular immune responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of potent adjuvants is an important step for improving the performance of subunit vaccines. CD1d agonists, such as the prototypical α‐galactosyl ceramide (α‐GalCer), are of special interest due to their ability to activate iNKT cells and trigger rapid dendritic cell maturation and B‐cell activation. Herein, we introduce a novel derivatization hotspot at the α‐GalCer skeleton, namely the N‐substituent at the amide bond. The multicomponent diversification of this previously unexplored glycolipid chemotype space permitted the introduction of a variety of extra functionalities that can either potentiate the adjuvant properties or serve as handles for further conjugation to antigens toward the development of self‐adjuvanting vaccines. This strategy led to the discovery of compounds eliciting enhanced antigen‐specific T cell stimulation and a higher antibody response when delivered by either the parenteral or the mucosal route, as compared to a known potent CD1d agonist. Notably, various functionalized α‐GalCer analogues showed a more potent adjuvant effect after intranasal immunization than a PEGylated α‐GalCer analogue previously optimized for this purpose. Ultimately, this work could open multiple avenues of opportunity for the use of mucosal vaccines against microbial infections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As jurisdictions across the globe step up their efforts to adapt to climate change, it is important to assess progress by taking stock of and comparing adaptation policy. However, scholars and practitioners are struggling to conceptualize and measure adaptation policy. In this article, we propose a new two‐dimensional framework to measure public adaptation policy output, namely, the Climate Adaptation Policy Index (CAPI). The index combines multiple indicators from two core interdependent dimensions, namely, an institutionalization dimension focusing on strategic plans and administrative capacities for adaptation; and a measures dimension capturing concrete adaptation measures in relevant action areas such as in green and open spaces, transport infrastructure, buildings, public education, and disaster management. Our approach is extensive but feasible and may be adjusted for use in different contexts and policy areas. We probe our approach at the local level using original survey data from a diverse sample of 211 municipalities located in the state of Hessen in central Germany. A factor analysis suggests that the two dimensions constitute a meaningful measurement of municipal adaptation policy output. A cluster analysis identifies five groups of municipalities representing different stages of adaptation policy progress in Hessen. Finally, a regression analysis examines potential determinants of local adaptation policy making such as the size and wealth of municipalities. The results highlight the potential of the CAPI for analyzing both the state and the making of municipal adaptation policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The most successful medical intervention for preventing infectious diseases is still vaccination. This effective strategy has resulted in decreased mortality and extended life expectancy. However, there is still a critical need for novel vaccination strategies and vaccines. Antigen cargo delivery by nanoparticle-based carriers could promote superior protection against constantly emerging viruses and subsequent diseases. This should be sustained by the induction of vigorous cellular and humoral immunity, capable of acting both at the systemic and mucosal levels. Induction of antigen-specific responses at the portal of entry of pathogens is considered an important scientific challenge. Chitosan, which is widely regarded as a biodegradable, biocompatible and non-toxic material for functionalized nanocarriers, as well as having adjuvant activity, enables antigen administration via less-invasive mucosal routes such as sublingual or pulmonic application route. In this proof of principle study, we evaluate the efficacy of chitosan nanocarriers loaded with the model antigen Ovalbumin (OVA) co-administrated with the STING agonist bis-(3′,5′)-cyclic dimeric adenosine monophosphate (c-di-AMP) given by pulmonary route. Here, BALB/c mice were immunized with four doses of the formulation that stimulates enhanced antigen-specific IgG titers in sera. In addition, this vaccine formulation also promotes a strong Th1/Th17 response characterized by high secretion of IFN-γ, IL-2 and IL-17, as well as induction of CD8+ T cells. Furthermore, the novel formulation exhibited strong dose-sparing capacity, enabling a 90% reduction of the antigen concentration. Altogether, our results suggest that chitosan nanocarriers, in combination with the mucosal adjuvant c-di-AMP, are a promising technology platform for the development of innovative mucosal vaccines against respiratory pathogens (e.g., Influenza or RSV) or for therapeutic vaccines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current influenza vaccines target highly variable surface glycoproteins; thus, mismatches between vaccine strains and circulating strains often diminish vaccine protection. For this reason, there is still a critical need to develop effective influenza vaccines able to protect also against the drift and shift of different variants of influenza viruses. It has been demonstrated that influenza nucleoprotein (NP) is a strong candidate for a universal vaccine, which contributes to providing cross-protection in animal models. In this study, we developed an adjuvanted mucosal vaccine using the recombinant NP (rNP) and the TLR2/6 agonist S-[2,3-bispalmitoyiloxy-(2R)-propyl]-R-cysteinyl-amido-monomethoxyl-poly-ethylene-glycol (BPPcysMPEG). The vaccine efficacy was compared with that observed following parenteral vaccination of mice with the same formulation. Mice vaccinated with 2 doses of rNP alone or co-administered with BPPcysMPEG by the intranasal (i.n.) route showed enhanced antigen-specific humoral and cellular responses. Moreover, NP-specific humoral immune responses, characterized by significant NP-specific IgG and IgG subclass titers in sera and NP-specific IgA titers in mucosal territories, were remarkably increased in mice vaccinated with the adjuvanted formulation as compared with those of the non-adjuvanted vaccination group. The addition of BPPcysMPEG also improved NP-specific cellular responses in vaccinated mice, characterized by robust lymphoproliferation and mixed Th1/Th2/Th17 immune profiles. Finally, it is notable that the immune responses elicited by the novel formulation administered by the i.n. route were able to confer protection against the influenza H1N1 A/Puerto Rico/8/1934 virus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among cyclic di-nucleotides (CDN), both cyclic di-AMP (CDA) and di-GMP (CDG) are promising adjuvants and immune modulators. These molecules are not only able to induce profuse antibody production but also predominant T helper 1 and cytotoxic CD8 T lymphocytes (CTL) responses, which enable their use for vaccination against intracellular pathogens as well as in cancer immunotherapy. However, for their successful translation into the clinic, a comprehensive understanding of CDN mode of action is still essential. Consistent with evidence in the literature, we show here that IFN-α/β (Type I IFN) is crucial for CDG-mediated B cell activation. We recently determined the key role of type I IFN signaling for CDA-mediated enhancement of immunogenicity. Based on the biological activities of type I IFN, in this study, we hypothesized that it might also be required for CTL induction by CDG. We disclose here the mode of action of type I IFN signaling in CDG-mediated cross-presentation and subsequent CTL generation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The x-ray reflectivity of crystals is an important measure for their quality. Its knowledge is of interest for the development of materials as well as for the design of x-ray optical instruments, while the determination of the reflectivity curve is not trivial. This article presents an approach to retrieve the reflectivity curve of crystals based on ptychography. The method is demonstrated on the examples of silicon and diamond of which the reconstructed reflectivity curves agree well with theoretical expectations. Thus, this method offers promising perspectives in the detection of small crystalline defects and in the design of future instruments for x rays. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To combine the excellent transfection properties of lipids with the high stability of polymeric nanoparticles, we designed a hybrid system with a polymeric core surrounded by a shell of different lipids. The aim is to use this technology for skin vaccination purposes where the transfection of dendritic cells is crucial. Based on a carrier made of PLGA and the positively charged lipid DOTMA, we prepared a panel of nanocarriers with increasing amounts of the zwitterionic phospholipid DOPE in the lipid layer to improve their cell tolerability. We selected a nomenclature accordingly with numbers in brackets to represent the used mol% of DOPE and DOTMA in the lipid layer, respectively. We loaded mRNA onto the surface and assessed the mRNA binding efficacy and the degree of protection against RNases. We investigated the influence of the lipid composition on the toxicity, uptake and transfection in the dendritic cell line DC 2.4 challenging the formulations with different medium supplements like fetal calf serum (FCS) and salts. After selecting the most promising candidate, we performed an immune stimulation assay with primary mouse derived dendritic cells. The experiments showed that all tested lipid–polymer nanoparticles (LPNs) have comparable hydrodynamic parameters with sizes between 200 and 250 nm and are able to bind mRNA electrostatically due to their positive zetapotential (20–40 mV for most formulations). The more of DOPE we add, the more free mRNA we find and the better the cellular uptake reaching approx. 100% for LPN(60/40)–LPN(90/10). This applies for all tested formulations leading to LPN(70/30) with the best performance, in terms of 67% of live cells with protein expression. In that case, the supplements of the medium did not influence the transfection efficacy (56% vs. 67% (suppl. medium) for live cells and 63% vs. 71% in total population). We finally confirmed this finding using mouse derived primary immune cells. We can conclude that a certain amount of DOTMA in the lipid coating of the polymer core is essential for complexation of the mRNA, but the zwitterionic phospholipid DOPE is also important for the particles' performance in supplemented media. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate politics and governance across the globe involve an increasing number of interest groups such as from business and civil society. Against this backdrop, it matters a great deal whether interest group mobilization is able to influence climate policy-making. First, there is an increasing number of climate policy supporters like nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and green businesses lobbying in favour of additional climate policies. Second, there is also strong mobilization of groups from energy-intensive and fossil fuel industries lobbying against potentially costly climate policies. In this paper, we investigate the potential effects of these mobilization patterns. More precisely, we ask whether there is any systematic effect of competing interest group mobilization on national climate policy production. To this end, we harness arguments from literatures on interest group mobilization and climate policy-making. Empirically, we exploit a comprehensive global dataset on the adoption of national climate laws and interest group mobilization (over 4,000 organizations) between 1997 and 2016. The results show that the increasing mobilization of climate policy supporters is positively related to national climate policy production. Climate policy opponents are able to weaken this effect, but are hardly able to block new climate laws. The results add to our understanding of climate politics focusing on the role of business organizations and NGOs. This is highly policy relevant for both analysts and practitioners given that the Paris Agreement relies heavily on national policy efforts. The growing mobilization of climate policy supporters is positively related to the adoption of additional climate laws. The positive effect of climate policy supporters is weakened but rarely blocked by climate policy opponents, such as those from the fossil fuel industry. The effect of lobbying over climate policy needs to be assessed in its competitive context, that is by considering how political support and opposition on climate policy interact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adapting to some level of climate change has become unavoidable. However, there is surprisingly limited systematic knowledge about whether and how adaptation policies have diffused and could diffuse in the future. Most existing adaptation studies do not explicitly examine policy diffusion, which is a form of interdependent policy‐making among jurisdictions at the same or across different levels of governance. To address this gap, we offer a new interpretation and assessment of the extensive adaptation policy literature through a policy diffusion perspective; we pay specific attention to diffusion drivers and barriers, motivations, mechanisms, outputs, and outcomes. We assess the extent to which four motivations and related mechanisms of policy diffusion—interests (linked with learning and competition), rights and duties (tied to coercion), ideology, and recognition (both connected with emulation)—are conceptually and empirically associated with adaptation. We also engage with adaptation policy characteristics, contextual conditions (e.g., problem severity) and different channels of adaptation policy diffusion (e.g., transnational networks). We demonstrate that adaptation policy diffusion can be associated with different mechanisms, yet many of them remain remarkably understudied. So are the effects of adaptation policy diffusion in terms of changes in vulnerability and resilience. We thus identify manifold avenues for future research, and provide insights for practitioners who may hope to leverage diffusion mechanisms to enhance their adaptation efforts. This article is categorized under:Policy and Governance > Multilevel and Transnational Climate Change GovernanceVulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change > Institutions for Adaptation [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]