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In the horse, carbohydrate overload is thought to play an integral role in the onset of laminitis by drastically altering the profile of bacterial populations in the hindgut. The objectives of this study were to develop and validate microbial ecology methods to monitor changes in bacterial populations throughout the course of experimentally induced laminitis and to identify the predominant oligofructose-utilizing organisms. Laminitis was induced in five horses by administration of oligofructose. Faecal specimens were collected at 8 h intervals from 72 h before to 72 h after the administration of oligofructose. Hindgut microbiota able to utilize oligofructose were enumerated throughout the course of the experiment using habitat-simulating medium. Isolates were collected and representatives identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The majority of these isolates collected belonged to the genus Streptococcus, 91% of which were identified as being most closely related to Streptococcus infantarius ssp. coli. Furthermore, S. infantarius ssp. coli was the predominant oligofructose-utilizing organism isolated before the onset of lameness. Fluorescence in situ hybridization probes developed to specifically target the isolated Streptococcus spp. demonstrated marked population increases between 8 and 16 h post oligofructose administration. This was followed by a rapid population decline which corresponded with a sharp decline in faecal pH and subsequently lameness at 24–32 h post oligofructose administration. This research suggests that streptococci within the Streptococcus bovis/ equinus complex may be involved in the series of events which precede the onset of laminitis in the horse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Histopathology of the dermo-epidermal junction in the lamellar region of front claws was examined in 6 dairy heifers given an alimentary oligofructose overload and compared with sections from a control group of 6 heifers. Four of the 6 heifers administered oligofructose developed clinical signs of acute laminitis before they were euthanized. Postmortem samples from front claws were processed for histology. Eleven histopathologic characteristics were selected from the existing literature and used in a blinded evaluation of sections. In total, 104 front claw samples, including 8 samples from 2 cows having spontaneously occurring acute laminitis, were evaluated histologically using hematoxylin and eosin as well as periodic acid-Schiff staining. The major morphological features associated with oligofructose-induced acute clinical laminitis were stretching of lamellae, dermal edema, hemorrhage, changes in basal cell morphology, presence of white blood cells in dermis, and signs of basement membrane detachment. Changes at the lamellar junction of claw tissue affected by oligofructose-induced clinical laminitis resembled tissue from the 2 cows suffering from spontaneous acute clinical laminitis, and generally were consistent with existing descriptions of laminitis histopathology. Important exceptions to existing descriptions in the literature were stretching of lamellae and basement membrane changes. Not previously described, we considered these early signs of acute laminitis. In conclusion, this study documents that oligofructose-induced clinical laminitis is associated with histopathological changes at the lamellar interface. A weakened dermo-epidermal junction is a possible intermediate stage in the pathophysiology of bovine sole ulceration at the typical site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Twelve dairy heifers were used to examine the clinical response of an alimentary oligofructose overload. Six animals were divided into 3 subgroups, and each was given a bolus dose of 13, 17, or 21 g/kg of oligofructose orally. The control group (n = 6) was sham-treated with tap water. Signs of lameness, cardiovascular function, and gastrointestinal function were monitored every 6 h during development of rumen acidosis. The heifers were euthanized 48 and 72 h after administration of oligofructose. All animals given oligofructose developed depression, anorexia, and diarrhea 9 to 39 h after receiving oligofructose. By 33 to 45 h after treatment, the feces returned to normal consistency and the heifers began eating again. Animals given oligofructose developed transient fever, severe metabolic acidosis, and moderate dehydration, which were alleviated by supportive therapy. Four of 6 animals given oligofructose displayed clinical signs of laminitis starting 39 to 45 h after receiving oligofructose and lasting until euthanasia. The lameness was obvious, but could easily be overlooked by the untrained eye, because the heifers continued to stand and walk, and did not interrupt their eating behavior. No positive pain reactions or lameness were seen in control animals. Based on these results, we conclude that an alimentary oligofructose overload is able to induce signs of acute laminitis in cattle. This model offers a new method, which can be used in further investigation of the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of bovine laminitis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary Reasons for performing study: In equine patients, the cause of clinical signs possibly related to the cervical region is often difficult to diagnose. Ultrasonography allows quick and noninvasive visualisation, but reference material of the normal equine neck is needed. Objectives: To describe and document the normal ultrasonographic appearance of transverse scans in the cervical region with emphasis on the synovial articular facet joints, cervical vertebrae and paravertebral structures; and further, to provide images of frozen cross-sections for anatomical reference. Methods: A study describing the normal ultrasonographic appearance of the cervical anatomy was performed. Transverse scans were obtained from second cervical vertebra (C2) to first thoracic vertebra (T1). Post mortem photographs of frozen cross-sections were obtained as anatomical reference. Results: The structures were clearly visualised by ultrasonography and consistency was found between ultrasonographic images and corresponding cross-sectional anatomy. The articular facets varied between horses and facets (C2 to T1). Discrepancy in the existing anatomical descriptions was found. Conclusions and potential relevance: The anatomical and ultrasonographic description provides a reference for ultrasonographic evaluation of equine cervical facet joints, vertebrae and paravertebral structures. The findings and variations found are considered to reflect the naturally occurring variations in horses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary Reasons for performing study: Intra-articular facet joint injection is an established diagnostic procedure in human medicine but there are no reports on its reliability in equine practice. Objectives: To investigate the accuracy of ultrasound-guided intra-articular injections of the cervical facet joints and to estimate factors influencing the accuracy. Methods: Sixty injections with blue dye were performed on the facet joints between 2nd and 7th cervical vertebra (C2-C7) on horses subjected to euthanasia for nonorthopaedic reasons. The facet joints were subsequently dissected to verify accuracy of deposition. Results: Seventy-two percent of the injections were found to be int ra-articul ar, 17% were intracapsular and a total of 98% were within 1 mm of the joint capsule. There was a marked effect of gained experience (P<0.01), but not of other factors tested. Conclusions and potential relevance: The results of the present study do not translate directly to injections performed in live horses, but they indicate that the method can be applied as a diagnostic as well as therapeutic procedure in C2 to C7 and that is advisable to practise injections on cadaver specimens before applying the technique. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim was to describe the clinical orthopedic implications of oligofructose overload. A group of 8 nonpregnant dairy heifers were given an oral dose of oligofructose (17 g/kg of body weight). At predefined times during a period spanning 3 d before and 9 d after oligofructose overload, the heifers underwent a clinical examination including locomotion scoring, hoof-testing, and palpation of tarso-crural joints, as well as the collection of blood and ruminal fluid samples. Locomotion sessions were videotaped; subsequently, locomotion was blind-scored. Locomotion scores increased after oligofructose overload and declined toward the end of the study period. The greatest locomotion scores were recorded on d 3 to 5 (60 to 120 h) where 12 of 42 (29%) locomotion scores were 3 and 13 of 42 (32%) were score 2. Positive reactions to hoof-testing were observed from 30 h after oligofructose overload and reached a maximum on d 7 and 9 where 12 of 28 (43%) reactions were marked positive. Distension of the tarso-crural joints was observed from 24 h after oligofructose overload, with maximum distension being observed on d 2, in which 44 of 56 (79%) of observed joints were either moderately or severely distended. The heifers developed classic signs of acute ruminal and systemic acidosis after the oligofructose overload (ruminal pH 4.3 ± 0.07, standard base excess -10.8 ± 2.3 at 18 h). With few exceptions, clinical and laboratory variables returned to normal within 9 d of oligofructose overload. But, good body condition and previous feeding with grass apparently predisposed the heifers to more severe systemic affection. Oligofructose overload in dairy heifers induced ruminal and systemic acidosis, diarrhea, dehydration, and, subsequently, lameness, claw pain, and joint effusion, collectively interpreted as signs of acute laminitis. Oligofructose overload at 17 g/kg of body weight represented a relatively mild laminitis model in cattle, as demonstrated by a reasonably quick recovery from systemic as well as orthopedic signs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reasons for Performing the Study: Early recognition of excessive inflammation and infectious complications after surgery, leading to early institution of therapy, reduces post operative discomfort and facilitates recovery. Because serum amyloid A (SAA) is a highly sensitive marker of inflammation, measurements of SAA and other acute phase reactants in the equine surgical patient may be valuable in assisting clinical assessment of post operative inflammation., Objectives: To investigate changes in inflammatory markers after castration and to correlate levels of acute phase reactants with clinical severity of inflammation after castration., Methods: Leucocyte numbers and blood levels of iron, SAA and fibrinogen were determined before castration and on Days 3 and 8 post operatively in 2 groups of horses; Group 1 (n = 11) had mild post operative inflammation and an uncomplicated recovery and Group 2 (n = 7) had local clinical signs of moderate to severe inflammation., Results: Both groups had elevated serum SAA levels at Day 3 post operatively. In Group 1 concentrations had returned to preoperative levels by Day 8, whereas in Group 2 concentrations remained elevated. Plasma fibrinogen concentrations in serum increased to equal levels in both groups and stayed elevated throughout the study period. Serum iron concentrations of Group 1 did not change in response to castration, whereas concentrations in Group 2 decreased below preoperative levels on Day 8. Leucocyte numbers remained unchanged during the post operative period in both groups., Conclusions: Serum SAA and iron profiles reflected the course of inflammation and their levels correlated with the clinical severity of inflammation. In contrast, fever and changes in leucocyte numbers, which are usually considered to be hallmarks of inflammation and infection, were not useful for monitoring post operative recovery., Potential Relevance: Measurements of SAA and iron may improve post operative monitoring. As sustained inflammation may indicate that the surgical wound has become infected, SAA and iron measurements may facilitate early recognition and hence early treatment of infection.

In a case-control study in colic horses the ability of spectrophotometric measurement of the haemoglobin concentration in the peritoneal fluid supernatant and visual assessment of the colour of peritoneal fluid supernatant to differentiate between surgical and medical treatment of colic was assessed. Based on previous studies, which have found anda association between peritoneal fluid colour and the kind of treatment required, our hypothesis was that the peritoneal fluid haemoglobin concentration would be higher in horses requiring surgical intervention than in horses amenable to medical treatment. Seventy-four horses admitted to a teaching hospital were included. Thirty-five horses were classified as requiring surgery and 39 medical treatment. Logistic regression revealed a significant (P < 0.0001) association between the haemoglobin concentration measured with the spectrophotometer and the need for surgical treatment. Odds ratio for an increase in haemoglobin concentration of 0.01 mmol/l was 6.4, which means that the odds for 'need for surgical treatment' increased when peritoneal fluid haemoglobin concentration increased. When used as a diagnostic test with a threshold of 0.01 mmol/l haemoglobin for selecting surgical vs. medical treatment, sensitivity was 80% and specificity 82%, whereas simple visual assessment had a sensitivity of only 51% and a specificity of 95%.

A prospective survey of horses with colic referred to the Large Animal Hospital at the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University of Copenhagen, Denmark, was undertaken between August 1994 and December 1997. The interrelationships between 17 clinical variables were analysed using factor analysis. Factor analysis uncovers the structure of the variability in data and therefore detects multicollinearity. A total of 528 horses were admitted in the study period. Of these, 16 were excluded from the analysis as a result of miscellaneous conditions. Only 205 horses had observations for all 17 variables. Because no major change occurred in the main diagnostic categories, this population was considered as a representative subset. Factor analysis confirmed the clinical impression of correlation between variables, but the multicollinearity turned out not to be strong. Four factors were extracted, and these accounted for 51% of the total variance. The retained factors were interpreted by integrating previously reported clinical research. The first factor, which was interpreted as endotoxaemia, had high loadings on capillary refill time, mucous-membrane colour, degree of pain, heart rate, packed-cell volume and abdominal sounds. In the second factor, cecal decompression, admission month and gastric reflux had the predominant influence, and this factor was explained as cecal tympany. The third factor was simply interpreted as age because it had high loadings on gender, age and temperature. In the fourth factor, the interpretation was not straightforward, although breed had the greatest influence in the formation of this factor. Subsequently, the extracted factors were used in a logistic-regression analysis to determine their association with outcome (survival/death). The two factors interpreted as endotoxaemia and age were related to the outcome.

A prospective survey of 528 colic horses, referred to the Large Animal Hospital at the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University of Copenhagen, Denmark, during the period August 1994 to December 1998, was undertaken to develop a predictive model for application in the clinical assessment of prognosis. In the multivariate logistic regression analysis, 357 colic cases were used in the elaboration of a simple clinical-practical model consisting of degree of pain, packed cell volume, capillary refill time and rectal temperature. The relationship between rectal temperature and outcome (survival/death) has been regarded as linear. It has also been reported to be nonsignificant. The present study suggests a strong U-shaped relation, which is easily transformed into a linear association and readily interpretable in the clinical situation if treated as a deviation from 38 degrees C. Several other clinical and laboratory variables were strongly related to outcome in the bivariate analysis. The changes in sensitivity and specificity of the multivariate model, when applied as a prognostic test, were presented with changing cut-off values. The cut-off value is the level, of predicted probability of death, at which the clinical decision to treat or subject to euthanasia is taken. The predictive performance of the model was further illustrated using a mortality of 19%. The optimal accurate classification for both survival and death was 87%, which was attained when a cut-off value of 86% was selected. To minimise the number of horses unnecessarily subjected to euthanasia, the cut-off value was increased. However, this simultaneously increased the number of misclassified survivors, i.e. the number of horses that would die despite treatment. Outcome was especially poorly predicted in 4 horses, as was indicated by extreme deviance residuals. In 2 of these horses the large residuals were attributable to sudden and severe changes in the course of disease. All 4 horses had changes in variable values towards abnormality prior to death. Repeated measurements are therefore suggested in order to increase the test performance in general. The prerequisites of clinical application of prognostic models are critically discussed. The main findings of the present study indicate that degree of pain, packed cell volume, capillary refill time and temperature deviation from 38 degrees C, used in a logistic regression model, offer a strong model for clinical assessment of prognosis.